2) King determines which religion is to be followed in the state.

UNIT I: STATE SYSTEM AND THEORIES

(A). INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: DIVERSITY AND DISCIPLINARITY, NATURE AND SCOPE, THE STATE

SYSTEM AND NON-STATE-ACTORS

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

• PERIOD OF GREEK CITY‐STATES:

• As a political activity, international relations dates back to the time of Greek city‐

states and the work of Thucydides, the Greek historian (460‐395 BC) who is famous for his work titled ‘The History of Peloponnesian War’.

• The original point in the evolution of IR can be traced to the period of Greek city‐

states because of the presence of conflict and small‐scale wars among the Greek city‐

states for the purpose of domination.

The “History of the Peloponnesian War” is a historical account of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), which was fought between the Peloponnesian League (led by Sparta) and the Delian League (led by Athens).

 The Greek city‐state (Athens, Sparta, Argos, Corinth, Thebes, Delphi, Rhodes) were facing the intractable problem of managing conflicts between them.

 The Athens being a weak city‐state in comparison to the Sparta, reflected another important issue of international relations—the issue of power and powerful. It was on the basis of index of power that Roman Empire later prevailed over the Greek city‐states.

 The entire period from Greek city‐state to that of the Roman Empire is beset with the theme of War, Annexation and Domination.

AN INTRODUCTION TO IR

 International Relations (IR) is the branch of Political Science.

The study of IR is becoming ever more important as our world becomes more interconnected.

 The term ‘international’ were first coined by Jeremy Bentham in his book

‘Principles of Morals and Legislation’ published in 1789. He used the term

‘international law’ which was eventually to replace the older phrase law of nations.

 IR is an interdisciplinary subject, touching on history, economics, law, anthropology, sociology and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global poverty, the environment, economics, globalisation, security, global ethics, political environment, etc.

 IR is an area of study or knowledge concerned with relations between different countries. It is the study of how nation‐states interact with one another within international system.

EVOLUTION OF THE STUDY OF IR

 IR in the ancient world had been limited in nature. The relations were mostly parochial and occasionally interstate.

 Before the advent of the modern state, Europe was not yet a state system, and international relations did not really exist. Monarchic states were intertwined with other social formations‐with empires, cities and city‐states (republics, bishoprics and principalities) in shifting arrangements among emperors, monarchs, nobles, clerics and towns.

 The Thirty Years War (1618‐48) destroyed a good portion of central Europe and led to a population decline in the area of almost 40%.

 The Holy Roman Emperor’s ultimate war aim was to conquer all of Europe and to restore the domination of the Catholic faith within it.

 The whole issue of religion that had torn Europe apart into civil war, massacres, and the terrible consequences.

Treaty of Westphalia-1648

 Peace of Westphalia was a series of Peace Treaties signed between May and October in 1648.

 This treaty brought an end to the Thirty Years War (1618‐48) in the Holy Roman Empire (Between Protestant & the Roman Catholics ) and the Eight Year War between Spain and Dutch Republic.

 This treaty established a new system of IR based on its fundamental principle‐

the state’s sovereignty.

This treaty was based on 3 principles:

1) The king is the highest authority in his land and all sovereign states are equal.

2) King determines which religion is to be followed in the state.

3) The balance of power will develop to keep in check the hegemonic ambitions of a state.

 With the Treaty of Westphalia of 1648, the state emerged as an ideal unit of mankind.

 International Relations from the mid‐17

century to the mid‐

20

century were founded on the decisions by this Peace

Treaty. This treaty established the principle of sovereignty as

the foundation for relations among states.

 Many of less powerful states of Europe feared it and they sought to prevent any such future threat possibility by creating a balance of power on the continent.

 Since the fall of Napoleon (Water Loo‐1815) till 1914 Europe more or less co‐existed and prevented any single state from attaining a hegemony position by Balance of power.

At the end of the 17^th century, a new threat arose from Louis XIV.

OUTBREAK OF FIRST WORLD WAR- 1914-18

 First World War, an international conflict that in 1914–18 embroiled most of the nations of Europe along with Russia, the United States, the Middle East, and other regions.

 The war pitted the Central Powers—mainly Germany, Austria‐Hungary, and Turkey—against the Allies—mainly France, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan, and, from 1917, the United States.

 It ended with the defeat of the Central Powers. The war was virtually unprecedented in the slaughter, carnage, and destruction it caused.

 This World War resulted in unparalleled destruction and devastation of almost every country involved, with millions of lives lost.

 Total economic collapse, widespread famine, and rampant disease continued to add to the death toll. The total number of military and civilian casualties in World War‐I, was around 40 million.

 The impact of World War‐I and its aftermath realized the importance and necessity of the study of relations among nations, which lead to the establishment of International Relations (IR) departments and Chairs in various Universities.

 Similarly, many other IR departments also established in different parts of the world.

The first Chair of IR ‘The Woodrow Wilson Chair’ was established in 1919 at the University of Wales, at Aberystwyth (UK). David Davies financially helped to set up this chair as a memorial to the students killed and wounded in the WW‐I. Sir Alfred Zimmern was the first holder of the prestigious chair (1919‐21), then C.K. Webster.

 Georgetwon University’s Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest IR study centre in the United State of America also established in 1919. IR in Jerusalem in 1929, Oxford University in 1930, the London School of Economics in 1936, and the University of Edinburgh in 1948, etc.

 With the process of decolonization, the IR subject spread to the Afro‐

Asian region as well.

 In the initial phases this discipline focused mainly on General History, Diplomatic History, and International Law.

 The basic objective of this efforts was that by promoting the study of IR, it would be possible to bring amicable relations and peace in the world and to solve other prevailing global challenges.

MEANING OF IR

 The study of relations among nations has fascinated scholars for several centuries. It is not an easy task to give the precise meaning of international relations.

 There are two views regarding the meaning of IR, one is narrow and other is broader.

 Those who follow the narrow view emphasize that IR include only the official relations conducted by the authorised leaders of the state.

 Scholars who have taken a broad view of IR have included other relations between the states apart from official relations.

 People always confuse themselves on the term ‘International Relations (IR),’ and ‘International Politics’ (IP) and sometimes, these terms used interchangeably.

 The term IR and IP are used synonymously and several scholars do not like to draw a line of demarcation between these two.

 Scholars like H.J. Morgenthau and Kenneth Thomson uses these terms interchangeably and they consider IP as an inalienable part of IR.

 There are several other scholars like Palmer and Perkins, Burton, James H. Wolf, etc. prefer to use the term IR instead of IP.

 According to some scholars IP is much narrower in its scope than IR. IP describe the official political relation between governments acting behalf of their states. It includes only those aspects of international relations in which a conflict of purpose/interest is involved.

 The term IR is broader in scope and include all aspects of relations between countries and people, political or non‐political, peaceful or war‐like, legal or cultural, economic or geographic, official or non‐official.

 In other words, IR deals with not only the political relations of the state but also deals with non‐political relation of state.

 According to Hans Morgenthau “The core of IR is IP.” Further, he says IR is much wider in scope than IP. Similarly, Palmer and Perkins express that IP is essentially concerned with the relations of state system, whereas, IR includes all types of relationships between sovereign states.

 IR and IP also differ in their aim. The ultimate aim of IR is the establishment of ‘International Peace’ through cooperation and agreement among different nations promoting mutual interest.

 IP is ‘Struggle for Power’ through conflicts, war, political manoeuvres among different nations.

Difference Between International Politics &

International Relations:

International Politics International Relations

1. Its area is confined to the study of only political relations among the nation-states

1. It includes political as well as nonpolitical kind of relations among

nations.

2. It primarily deals with the state-to state level relations/official relations

conducted by the authorised leaders of the state.

2. Apart from the official relations it also includes in its scope the people to people level relations.

3. Therefore, the scope of International politics is narrower & very much limited.

3. But IRs has a much wider scope than that of the IP.

4. Mostly the study of IP employs Descriptive and Analytical Methods

4. It uses wider versatile & Scientific methods in its study.

5. It mainly deals with conflicting, oppositional or unfriendly relations between the nations.

5. Co-operative as well as oppositional

& all kinds of relations are included in its scope.

 The meaning/definition of IR is vary from writer to writer, hence there is no universally agreed definition.

 IR is a broad and complex topic both for countries engaged in relationships with other nations, and for observers who trying to understand those interactions. These relationships are influenced by many variables.

 IR as a process in which nations try to serve their national interests, which may be in conflict with those of other nations, by means of their policies and actions.

 IR also can be defined as the study of relationship and interactions between countries, including the activities and policies of national govts, International Governmental Organizations (IGOs), Non‐govermental organization (NGOs), and Multinational Corporation (MNCs).

 As a field of study, international relations focuses on the political, military, economic, and cultural interaction of state and non‐state actors at the global level.

NATURE OF IR & IP

• Before its origin after the first world war as an academic study, IR was treated as a part of history, law, political theory, etc.,

• Due to increasing human‐activities, the relations among various countries have been changing.

• Due to these continuous changes in international relations, the meaning, nature and scope of IR is subsequently changing.

• There are many factors which affects the nature of international relations such as evolution of new nations, technological development, nuclear research, rise of multipolar world, emergence of new order, non‐state organizations, global environmental and health issues, etc.

 Due to this changing nature of IR, it is very difficult to explain the nature of international relations specifically. However, the followings are some points regarding the nature of international relations;

 NO SINGLE DEFINITION: There is no Universally accepted definition of IR due to its continuous changing nature.

 OPERATES IN ANARCHICAL SYSTEM: International relations operate in an anarchical system. There is no single organization to regulate relations among states.

 INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF IR: IR is an interdisciplinary hybrid, blending the fields of political science, economics, history, geography, law, sociology, cultural studies etc. to examine topics such as human rights, global poverty, environmental issues, globalization, global security, global pandemic challenges and world political crisis.

 CONCERNS WITH GLOBAL ISSUES: International relations deal with key issues which are concerns with public/global interest.

 THE STUDY OF IR IS CENTRED AROUND SOVEREIGN STATES: Sovereign States are the major actors and other organisations and groups have only secondary role at international level.

 IR CENTRES AROUND POWER APPROACH: The League of Nations & Collective Security system failed to prevent war. This has given rise to the realistic school of power politics & the inevitability of war. Realistic thought argue that the optimism of peace & tranquillity through the UN is an utopian idea.

 POWER IS BOTH A MEANS AS WELL AS AN END IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

 INTERNATIONAL POLITICS IS STRUGGLE FOR POWER

 PROTECTION OF NATIONAL INTEREST IS THE OBJECTIVE IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

 CONFLICTS ARE CONDITION OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

CHANGING NATURE OF IR AFTER SECOND WORLD WAR

 After the Second World War, the International System came to be a totally different system from the classical (19th century) international system.

 The classical international system was Euro‐centric and it worked on the principles of balance of power, war as a means, secret diplomacy as an instrument, and narrow nationalism as its objective.

 Under the impact of the two world wars, particularly as a result of the Second World War, the nature of international system underwent a big change.

 Under the impact of the changes in the international power structure and the emergence of several new factors, the nature and content of post‐war international relations registered a revolutionary change. It became a new international system and replaced the classical international system. The following points are the major changes.

 END OF THE TRADITIONAL EURO‐CENTRIC INTERNATIONAL POWER STRUCTURE:

The two wars, particularly the Second World War destroyed the old international power structure and gave rise to a new structure. The war destroyed the balance of power system in Europe; There appeared a power vacuum in Europe; Europe lost its position as the epicenter of international politics. The power vacuum in Europe impelled the USA to abandon isolationism and to increase its influence in Europe.

 BIRTH OF THE UNO: After the failure of the League of Nations the world witnessed the birth of another international organization namely the United Nations Organisation, which came into existence on 24 October, 1945. The UNO was designed to act as an effective platform for international diplomacy to secure international peace, security, and development through collective efforts of all the nations. The birth of the United Nations gave a new look to the post‐war international system.

 RISE OF SEVERAL NEW SOVEREIGN STATES: After the World War II, the weakened position of the European imperial powers and the strengthened spirit of national self‐determination and liberation among the colonies became instrumental in initiating a process of end of colonialism and imperialism in the World. Several nations of the world, particularly Asian and African nations, were successful in overthrowing the yoke of colonialism and imperialism and in securing their independences. The Rise of new sovereign states in Asia, and Africa and a resurgent Latin America began giving a completely new look to the world map and international relations.

 EMERGENCE OF COLD WAR: In the Post‐war period, the USA decided to use its superior economic and military position for filling the power vacuum in Europe. It also adopted the policy of fighting the spread of communism and ‘Containment of Communism’ through Marshall Plan in 1948. This attempt thoroughly opposed by the USSR and it also decided to extend its influence in Europe. The emergence of China as a communist power in 1949 gave further strength to Soviet‐led communist movement. The presence of two competing, in fact rival super powers set the stage for the emergence of cold war—a war of nerves full of tensions and strains in world politics, which made international peace a risky one.

 EMERGENCE OF BIPOLARITY OR BIPOLAR POWER STRUCTURE: The emergence of cold war led to the organisation of two competing and rival camps by both the USA and the USSR. These developments led to the emergence of two rival camps—the US Bloc and the Soviet Bloc, with their military alliances. This situation came to be characterized as bipolarity in world politics and it divided the world into two competing and even hostile blocs.

 BIRTH OF NON‐ALIGNMENT: In the era of cold war and alliance politics, some newly emerged states, decided to remain away from cold war and the super power alliances. States like India, Yugoslavia, Egypt, and Sri Lanka. Burma (Now Myanmar) and some others decided to follow such a policy. The main aim of Non‐alignment (NAM) was to keep away from cold war and its alliances as well as to promote mutual understanding and cooperation among the non‐aligned states.

 DEMOCRATIZATION OF FOREIGN POLICY AND CHANGES IN DIPLOMACY: The end of the Second World War rejected the thesis of authoritarianism in favour of democracy. Under its influence the formulation and implementation of foreign policy became democratic in nature and style.

 THE BIRTH OF NUCLEAR AGE: Nuclear weapons changed the nature of war from a Simple war to total war.

 BALANCE OF TERROR IN PLACE OF BALANCE OF POWER: The fear of mutually assured destruction (MAD) either through declared war or accidental war began haunting the policy‐makers of all the nations.

 RECOGNITION OF THE ROLE OF POWER IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS:

It was realized that each nation is always prepared to use its national power to secure the goals of her national interest.

 EMERGENCE OF THE AGE OF TECHNOLOGY: Science and Technology began playing a big role in changing the environment of international relations since second world war. As a result of technological revolution, there began appearing a revolutionary development in spheres of industry, transport, communications, agriculture and military. The resultant economic growth became instrumental in producing big changes in the nature of international relations.

• Thus the classical international system came to be replaced by a new international system which was characterised by two super powers, cold war, bipolarity, non‐alignment, anti‐imperialism, the UNO, the presence of several new sovereign states in the world, Post‐Cold war period, Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization, Nuclear weapons and the threat of Total War and global pandemic like Covid19.

SCOPE & SUBJECT MATTER OF IR

 The scope of IR is not yet well settled.

 The evolution of IR as discipline, which began after the First World War is still in a developing stage and its scope is expanding everyday.

 The scope of IR was very narrow in the initial stage as it treated as a study of diplomatic history. Later on international law and international organisation became the subject matter of IR.

 Almost till the end of WW‐II, the scope of international relations was not clearly defined.

 It was only in the post II‐WW period that different scholars, universities, academic institutions took steps to draw the scope of IR.

Since then, IR as a discipline has expanded immensely. Greater emphasis on the scientific study of IR produced many new theories and methodologies in this field.

 Today, the scope of IR is continuously expanding & becoming very complex due to many factors such as LPG, advancement in technology, global environmental and health issues so on & so forth.

 Hence, it becomes a challenging job for academicians and students to master the discipline in this fast changing globalised era.

 Major points come under the scope of IR as follows;

 STUDY ON STATE SYSTEM: The state system is a distinctive way of organizing political life on earth and has deep historical roots.

Initially the state system was European, later it was Western and eventually in 19^th & 20^th century it expanded the entire territory of the Earth.

 Not all states are same in the world. Some are significant because of their neighborhood, some owing to their military or economic power, whereas some others due to the racial or cultural links.

 In brief, inter‐state relations are the result of sovereign state and international relations studies this relations thoroughly.

STUDY ON RELATIONS IN CONFLICT AND COOPERATION. International relations studies relations between two or more stats, which are very often complex and influenced by a variety of geopolitical, historical, social, religious, ideological, strategic and leadership factors. Broadly speaking, these relationship have taken the form of cooperation and conflict.

STUDY ON INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS:

International organisations have assumed a greater role in the present world. These organizations with certain prescribed objectives, rules and by means of their forums aim at bringing about more cooperation and reduce conflicting situations. They have emerged to enhance economic, military, technological or cultural cooperation among member states.

STUDY ON INTERNATIONAL LAW: International law contains a set of rules, which regulates and determines the inter‐state behavior pattern both in time of peace and war. It is the only device that restrains nations from using power against other nations. Therefore, a sound knowledge of international law is must in international relations.

STUDY ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF STATE ACTORS: Actors can be classified into State Actors and Non‐State Actors. A state actor is a person (President, PM, FM, etc,) who is acting on behalf of the state. A state actor is an entity directly supported by a government. State actors interact among themselves under a system known as ‘International System.’

 Non‐state actors include organizations and individuals that are not affiliated with, directed by, or funded through the government. These include corporations, private financial institutions, and NGOs, as well as paramilitary and armed resistance groups/ terrorist outfits.

STUDY ON POWER & POWER POLITICS: One of the central themes in the study of IR is power. H.J Morgenthau describes international politics as power politics. It is power that determines nations across the globe in framing their foreign policy. IR provide a detailed explanation of nature, elements and measurement of national power, balance of power, power equations and limitations of national power. Major limitations to power are international morality, international law, World Public Opinion, Collective Security, and international organisation.

STUDY ON IMPERIALISM, COLONIALISM & NATIONALISM: Imperialism and colonialism posing challenges to world peace endangering the cordial relations between the nations. Nationalism has also caused the demise of traditional imperialism and colonialism.

STUDY ON IDEOLOGIES: The twentieth century is also marked by the rise of rival ideologies such as communism, socialism, capitalism, totalitarianism, and liberalism. Rival ideologies and ideological warfare complicated international politics especially during the Cold War era.

STUDY ON WAR & PEACE: Conflict of interests and struggle supremacy among nations often lead to warfare between to or more nations. War and peace activities are now studied more systematically and importantly in international relations. It also require interdisciplinary approach and analysis.

STUDY ON CONFLICT MANAGEMENT & CONFLICT RESOLUTION:

Managing conflict implies that the conflict exists, but it is controlled.

On the other hand resolving conflict means that some end or solution to the conflict has been determined. Various international organizations and peace research institutes have been studying conflict management and resolution.

STUDY ON FOREIGN POLICY: The sovereign states conduct their foreign relations and interact with each other through their foreign policies. These are the external policies of a state which defines the plans actions of a state in its relations with other states.

STUDY ON MILITARY STRATEGY: Much of international relations are concerned with problem of national security and defense as preparation for and protection against wars and conflict. Bilateral and multilateral security arrangements, alliance diplomacy, military pacts, arms control and disarmament measures are part of state’s military strategy.

STUDY ON MILITARY ALLIANCES & REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: The study of international relations focused on the factors that contribute to the growth of military alliances like NATO, SEATO, CENTO, WARSAW. There are other regional groupings like EU, SAARC, ASEAN, AU etc., They function unitedly on many common issues inside and outside the UN.

STUDY ON NATIONAL INTERESTS: These are the national goals &

objectives of a nation‐state. The study of national interest has become useful in analyzing the history and conduct of a nation’s foreign policy.

• STUDY ON ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENTS: Devastating nature of the war in the nuclear age has compelled many states to do something for arms control and disarmament.

• Disarmament seeks to control armaments and Arms control tries to check arms race. The enforcement of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, Non‐Proliferation Treaty, CTBT, SALT‐I (1972) and SALT‐ll (1979), Intermediate Range Nuclear Force Treaty (INF‐1987) and START‐I, II etc. are some treaties related it.

Study on Economic Forces: Most of the international problems are economic in nature like global economic crisis, international trade &

commerce, foreign aid, customs and Tariffs, etc.,

No one can ignore in international relations the economic factors such as food problem, economic planning and development, rates of exchange, tariffs, exchange controls, commodity agreements, international trade, balance of payments, foreign aid, disparities between developed and under‐developed economies, demand for New International Economic order, international investment, multinational corporations, international economic agencies such as the World Bank and international Monetary Fund and many other UN agencies and regional economic agencies.

Study on Diplomacy

Study on Area and Regional Studies

Study on Environmental issues

Study on International Human Rights

Study on Transnational Companies/ MNC 

Study on Globalization

Study on Information revolution

IMPORTANCE & UTILITY OF IR

• Like any other discipline, international relations has its own importance, purpose and value. Today, IR is becoming more relevant in social world.

• As our world becomes global village through communication technology, rapid air transportation and a complex international economy, the value of peaceful and cooperative relationships between nations is increasingly important.

• The study of international relations has both theoretical as well as practical utility in the present age.

• The art of statesmanship, the art of diplomacy and the art of conducting foreign relations are inseparable from the discipline of international relations.

• This discipline is useful for Academicians, Journalists, Commentators, Statesman, Diplomats, International officials, Lawyers, Economists, Civil servants, Politicians, the Scholars and Research workers, etc., in this field.

• Provide general education: This study enables us to understand the basic motives underlying the policies of various countries in the international sphere.

• It also enables us to have an in‐depth understanding of the

problem facing the world today.

• For human survival and progress: It promotes human survival &

progress by solving international conflicts amicably. By cultivating the lessons of goodwill & co‐operation between nations, it promoting world peace & world government.

• To avoid future world wars: Mankind must put an end to war otherwise war will kill the mankind. Wars are highly destructive, instead of solving problems it causes many problems which has no solution at all. Through an international agency like UNO can be used to avoid wars and to promote world peace.

• The countries in the world have come to realize that they must

avoid a policy of confrontation and adopt a policy of cooperation

and co‐existence.

• To understand the defects of extreme nationalism: Extreme nationalism caused a number of conflicts & wars in history.

World peace and world government becomes difficult due to this parochial nationalism. The study of IRs helps mankind to devise some solutions to these problems to make this world a better planet to live in.

• To study the basic motivations of the nation‐states in the world

politics: The study of international relations enables us to

understand and analyse the basic motivations and objectives of

any state in world affairs and the techniques which it adopts for

the attainment of these objectives. Most of the states in reality

take decisions or action based on their national interest.

• To achieve International co‐operation: Today no state can lead an isolated life. Without international co‐operation, any problems of international society cannot be solved.

International co‐operation is necessary to promote Internationalism, world Government as well as world peace.

• To know the significance of Internationalism: Its study helps us

to understand the importance of international co‐existence

rather than national existence, so as to achieve the welfare of

all nations in the international society. In fact, internationalism

creates a feeling of oneness among the people of all nations in

the world.

• To understand the significance of Collective Security & Disarmament:

These are methods for achieving world peace, forming part of the study of IR.

• Any state which violates international peace should be silenced by the collective action of all the states.

• Collective Security is based on the principle of “Each for all and All for each.”

• Disarmament is the reduction or elimination of certain or all armaments for the purpose of ending armament race.

• To understand world public opinion: No statesman or leader can ignore world public opinion in their dealings with other states.

• Goal of attaining a better world: It is an intellectual discipline which will make the people more intelligent, more vigilant, more co‐

operative and tolerant.

• Its study will make everyone of us a better citizen and pave the way for a better world & a peaceful one. The better world is understood by the better people in it.

• It helps to study for a better world order:

• Enhancement of Economic & Trade Relations: This study ensures and builds proper economic relations between international communities. Promotion of economic growth through trade which enables states to acquire goods and services they lack.

• Understanding and promotion of human culture: It helps to understand and promote human culture through international exchange.

• Enhancement of Industrial Development: Enhance industrial development through the financial and technical assistance from developed to developing countries.

• It helps in understanding the problems facing the world and how to solve them:

• This study helps in seeking international cooperation and encouraging peaceful relations.

• This study helps to understand our role in the world and how the  world affect us and how we can change it or improve it. 

• Promotion of peaceful diplomatic relationship: Promotion of peace and security through diplomatic relations.

• Enhancement of effective communication: Effective communication between countries is a key for making beneficial relationships and ensuring a safer world as a result.

• International relations helps to reduces the adverse effects of racism, war, terrorism, human trafficking, human rights violations, poverty, unemployment, environmental degradation, pandemic/diseases etc.

• In short, international relations is dealing with various issues in the globe and understanding of these issues in a better way is the only way to solve it. For that the study of IR is very important in this globalized world.

THE STATE SYSTEM

 The state has acquired its present form through a long historical process extending over thousands of years.

 Different theories are discussed it..

 The population of the world has not always lived in sovereign states.

For most of recorded human history people have lived under different kinds of political organization.

1.primitive times -- loyalty to family 2.Then village

3.Then tribe

4.Then city-state or kingdom by about 3000 B.C. to 1648 A.D

 In medieval times, political authority was chaotic and dispersed.

Most people were dependent on a large number of different authorities like Political, Religious, Local ruler, Landlord, Kings, Pope, religious empire, etc.,

 The state system is a distinctive way of organizing political life on earth  and has deep historical roots. 

 The term ‘state system’ is also referred to as Nation‐state system, Western state system, national state system or sovereign state system.

 State is a body of people occupying a definite territory and politically organised under one government.

 The state is a political unit defined in terms of territory, population and a government that controls its territory regardless of ethnic homogeneity or heterogeneity.

 A state enjoys political and legal jurisdiction in the form of citizenship, while a nation promotes an emotional relationship through which the individual attains a feeling of cultural identity.

 The world of states is basically a territorial world; it is a way of politically organizing populated territory, a distinctive kind of territorial political organization, based on numerous different govts that are legally independent of each other.

 Parmer and Perkins, in their book ‘International Relations: The

World Community in Transition,’ defined the nation‐state

system as a pattern of political life in which people are

separately organised into sovereign states that interact with

one another in varying degrees and in varying ways.

 Nation‐states are considered as operating units in the international system.

 International system is the set of relationships among the world’s states, structured according to certain rules and patterns of interaction.

 The international state system was born in Europe with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.

 The process of evolution of modern states can be broadly categorized into the following phases:

1) Treaty of Westphalia‐1648 2) Treaty of Utrecht‐1713 3) Congress of Vienna‐1815 4) Treaty of Versailles‐1918‐19 

 Initially the state system was European, later it was Western and eventually in 19^th & 20^th century it expanded the entire territory of the Earth.

 The impact of Renaissance & Reformation and the emergence of the world capitalist economy and its requirements of global markets and raw materials that expanded the state system to the non‐European regions and peoples.

 During the era of Western imperialism the rest of the world came to be dominated by Europeans and Americans, either politically or economically sometimes both.

 The growth and spread of liberal democratic ideas and values such as liberty, equality, fraternity and national self‐determination also played a significant part in the development of the nation state system.

 The state system became truly global only in the 20^th century. The underdeveloped countries of the Third World achieved their political independence through national liberation struggles against imperialism and colonialism.

 With the emergence of a large number of former European colonies as sovereign nations, the nation state system has immensely expanded.

 The modern state is largely identified as the nation‐state and state system also known as nation‐state system.

 In the modern state, authority is centralized in one legally supreme government, and people live under the standard laws of that government.

 The development of the modern state went a long way towards organizing political authority and power along rational and national lines.

 In the course of time, the state system has undergone further development and changes due to increase in the number of states, interdependence among them in all spheres, especially economic, technological, political, social, international, regional, military, etc.

 Today nearly all the world’s land mass except Antarctica falls under the direct control of states.

FEATURES OF THE NATION‐STATE SYSTEM:

Territoriality

Sovereignty

Equality of States

Nationalism

Features of the Contemporary State System

The contemporary state system is an extension and development of the European state system as it developed in the late 18^th and 19^th centuries.

 The rise in the number and type of states.

 The great potential for destruction by those who possess nuclear weapons and modern delivery system.

 Increased vulnerability of states to external intrusions, including subversion, economic pressures and military conquests.

 The rising importance of non‐state actors, such as national liberation movements, MNCs, international interest groups and political parties, transcending national frontiers.

 The predominant position of influence that has been achieved by the three essentially non‐European states namely the United States, Russia & China.

 The great degree of dependence and interdependence between all types of actors.

BASIC SOCIAL VALUES OF STATE

There are at least 5 basic social values that states are usually expected to fulfil:

Security

Freedom

Order

Justice

Welfare

These are social values which are so fundamental to human well‐

being that they must be protected or ensured in some way.

Security: The protection of citizens from internal and external threat.

 State may preserve national security by using Military power.

 State may enter into alliances with other states to increase their national security.

 Security is one of the most fundamental values of international relations. (Theory –Realism Focus on Security, power politics, conflict and war).

 Security may classify as common security, human security, Individual security, economic security, co‐operative security, environmental security, etc.

Freedom: States are expected to fulfil the requirement of freedom, both personal and national freedom and independence.

 People cannot be free unless their country acquired freedom.

 Even if the country is free people may still not be free personally, but at least then the problem of their freedom is in their own hands.

 War and conflict threatens and sometimes destroy freedom.

 Peace fosters freedom. Freedom with peace and progressive changes are among the most fundamental values of international relations. (Theory‐Liberalism, Focus on Freedom, cooperation, peace

& progress).

Order and Justice: Order and Justice are obviously among the most fundamental values of international relations.

 States are expected to uphold order and justice. To that end states are expected to uphold international law (IL); to keep their treaty commitments and to observe the rules, conventions and customs of international legal order.

 Further expected to follow practices of diplomacy and to support international oragnisation (IO). IL, diplomatic relations, and IO can only exist and operate successfully if these expectations are generally met by most states in most of the time.

 International Society theories discussed it on the assumption that international relations can be best characterized as a world in which states are socially responsible actors and have a common interest in preserving international order and promoting international justice.

 Welfare: The final basic value that states are usually expected to uphold is the population’s socio‐economic wealth and welfare.

People expect their government to adopt appropriate policies to encourage high employment, low inflation, steady investment, the uninterrupted flow of trade and commerce, and so forth.

 Thus, wealth and welfare are the most fundamental values of international relations. The theory of international political economy (IPE) discussed it on the assumption that international relations can best be characterized as a fundamentally socio‐

economic world and not merely a political and military world.

• In short, States and the state system are territory‐based social organisations which exist primarily to establish, maintain, and defend basic social conditions and values particularly, Security, Freedom, Order, Justice and Welfare. These are the main reason for having states.

• Many states are promote such values and some are do not due to many reasons.

NON-STATE ACTORS

• The students of international politics cannot study the real nature and scope of their subject without studying the working and role of non‐

state actors in transnational relations.

• The institutionalization of trans‐national relations through several non‐

state and inter‐government organisations which act as important actors in international relations, is a continuing phenomenon of contemporary international relations.

• Non‐state actors are bound to remain or even become stronger actors in the future course of relations among nations

• Actors are any person or entity which plays a role that is valuable in international relations.

• There are two kind of actors in the world of International Relations which are states and non‐state actors. One of the oldest and universally acknowledged actors on the modern world stage is the state.

• A state actor is an entity directly supported by a government. A state actor is a person (President, PM, FM, etc,) who is acting on behalf of the state.

• State actors interact among themselves under a system known as

‘International System.’

• Non‐state actors are entities that participate or act in international relations, with sufficient power to influence and cause change without any affiliation to established institutions of a state.

• These individuals or organizations have significant political, economic, or social influence without being allied to any particular country or state.

• Non‐state actors include organizations and individuals that are not affiliated with, directed by, or funded through the government.

• These include corporations, private financial institutions, and NGOs, as well as paramilitary and armed resistance groups.

TYPES OF NON-STATE ACTORS

Non state actors are the actors other than state govts that operate either below the level of the state (within states) or across state borders.

Following the traditional classification, non‐state actors are divided into two categories: intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and non‐governmental organizations (NGOs).

IGO: Intergovernmental organization an organization whose members are state governments. IGOs are created by nation‐states and they are officially documented by government agencies.

 IGOs are voluntary associations of sovereign states established to pursue many objectives for which states want to cooperate through sort of formal structure and to which states are unable to realize by themselves.

 They are created by treaties and negotiations and decisions made by IGOs are the product of negotiations among the governmental representatives assigned to them.

 IGOs may be classified by scope/area (global and regional) and by function (political, economic, social and environmental).

 Eg:‐UN & Its agencies, WTO, IMF, EU, ASEAN, SAARC, BRICS, G‐8, G‐

20, etc.).

NGO:

 A non‐governmental organization is a private, non‐commercial group or body which seeks to achieve its ends through non‐violent means.

 The World Bank defines NGOs as ‘private organization that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or undertake community development.

 It is a transnational group or entity that interacts with states and influence the states.

 Eg‐Greenpeace, Amnesty International, Red cross, International Olympic Committee, etc.

 Dealing the issues of disarmament, environmental protection, human rights, etc

 Some are political purpose, humanitarian, economic, technical, etc

TNC/MNC:

• A transnational corporation, or TNC, is a company that controls economic activity in two or more countries.

• MNCs are companies that have headquarter in one state but invest and operate in other states.

• Eg:‐Sony, Honda, Toyota, MacDonald, KFC, Wal‐Mart,

Illegal Actors:

 These actors include terrorist organization, criminal groups and other groups that advocate violence.

 These actors are considered as transnational actors but they act in an illegitimate way.

 Most of these groups have a great capacity of financial resources and thus, are able to influence the state’s policies.

 Some of them are even capable to threaten the state’s security.

 Most operated secretly which makes it hard for the authorities to track them down.

 Most of these groups are involved in drugs, prostitution, human trafficking, firearms and many other crimes.

 All terrorists outfits, book haram, Yakuza in Japan, The Sicilian Mafia in Italy and many are a few example of illegal actors.

TYPES OF NONSTATE ACTORS

TYPE WHO ARE THEY? EXAMPLES

IGOs Intergovernmental Organizations Members are national governments UNO, NATO, Arab League,  etc.

NGOs Nongovernmental Organisations Members are individuals and groups Amnesty International,  Red Cross, Lions Clubs, etc.

MNCs Multinational Corporations Companies that span borders Toyota, Wal‐Mart, Exxon  Mobile, etc.

Others Individuals, Cities, Constituencies, etc. Bono, Iraqi Kurdistan,  Terrorist groups, etc.

IGOs and NGOs together make up International Organisations (IOs)