I Silly al Ike Higher Secondary Stage
A Thesis
Submitted to Goa University For the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION
Prof. /3.1t. oyaf
/$0,6 1,4 ;, Louis 'VernaC Guide
„. \nvestigator
V) ,-, 0 •
\ J
Goa University, Taleigaon
1999
4/001112•10
Certikate
This is to certify that the Thesis entitled
"THE IMAGE OF THE SCHOOL IN GOA - A STUDY AT THE HIGHER SECONDARY STAGE" submitted by Louis Vernal is his own work carried under say guidance and supervision and is worthy of examination.
Prof. Bhagat Ram Goya(
profennor of Education and
getd ac Head, Dept-of Educational Recearch and Policy Pernpectiven, NCERT, New Delhi Guide of Goa University
I, Mr. Louis Vernal, solemnly declare that this Thesis submitted by me is my own research work on "The Image of the School in Goa - A Study at the Higher Secondary Stage"
carried out under the guidance of Dr. Bhagat Ram Goyal, who has been Professor of Education, Dean of Instruction, Member-Secretary ERIC, and also the Head, Dept. of Educational Research and Policy Perspectives, NCERT. He is a guide of Goa University.
I do, further, declare that, to the best of my knowledge, the research work presented in this Thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other University.
Louis Vernal
Investigator
The planning and execution of this research has been a long journey wit its ups and downs. It has been a challenge since the topic, being new, to be conceptualised first and then qieration.arised Further, there wer
o research works on this topic though a few were available in relate areas. In this task the researcher acknowledges the invaluable assistanc
endered by :
Dr. Bhagat
RamGoya-, Professor of Education and formerly, Dean o Instruction, 3-lead of the Department of Research and Polk
Perspectives and Nlember Secretary, ERIC, all at the National Counci of Educational Research and Training (LACER T) New Delhi. At critical -juncture, he came to my assistance as guide. I am, indee indebted to him.
The teaching and non-teaching staff of my College, The g17.1tes Colleg of Education, Ponda who were of immense help at various stages o the research.
➢ The experts in the field of education who went through the tools an
offeredvaluable suggestions
graining (LACER?), New Delhi, the Indian Institute of Education (IIE) Pune and Goa 'University who tendered apt advice on referenc available in their libraries
D The Principa, teachers and students of the 3-figher Secorula Schools without whose wholehearted cooperation, this research wor wouldnot have beenpossible
D Tile members of my family who encouraged me during the tenure o the research and exercised their _patience with me during the fin months of thesis writing.
Zooid %lad
> Title Page
➢ Certificate
> Declaration
> Acknowledgement
Chapter I : Introduction
Page 1-14
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 The Educational Scenario 4 1.2.1 Quantitative Growth after Liberation 4 1.2.2 Need for Qualitative Improvement 6 1.2.3 Present Study and Qualitative Improvement 9 1.3 Statement of the Research Study 13 1.4 Resume of succeeding chapters 14
Chapter II : Review of Related Research 15.53 2.1 The Socio-educational dimension 15 2.2 Pioneering Contributions 16 2.3 The Construct of School Image 21
2.4 Other Studies 35
2.5 Conclusions 52
3.1 Statement of the Problem 54
3.2 Scope 54
3.3 Objectives of the Study 57
3.4 Hypotheses 58
3.5 Need and Importance of the Study 59
3.6 Limitations 60
3.7 Operational Definition of Terms and Concepts 61
3.7.1 School Image 61
3.7.2 Higher Secondary School 65
3.7.3 Stream 65
3.7.4 Attributes 65
Chapter IV : Description of the Tools of Research 67-102
4.1 Construction of Tools 67
4.2 Attributes of School Image Scale 68
4.2.1 Construction of the tool 68
4.2.2 Content Validity and Reliability 69 4.2.3 Description of the Attributes of School Image 71 4.3 Instrument of School Image 98
4.3.1 Construction of the School Image Scale 98 4.3.2 Content Validity and Reliability 101
Chapter V : Methodology of Investigation 103.113
5.1 Locale of the Study 103
5.2 Population 104
5.3 Sampling Design 104
5.3.1 School Sampling 104
5.3.2 Sampling of Principals, Teachers, Students 106
5.4 Data Collection 108
5.4.1 Preliminary steps taken to facilitate Collection of data 108
5.4.2 Data from the Schools 108
5.5 Scoring 109
5.5.1 Scoring Procedure for ASIS 109
5.5.2 Scoring Procedure for ISI 110
5.6 Design of the Study 112
5.7 Statistical Techniques 113
Chapter VI : Analysis and Interpretation of Data 114-153
6.1 Analysis of ASIS 114
6.1.1 Ranks for the Attributes 114
6.1.2 Tabulation of Data for ASIS 117
6.1.3 Variations in Perceptions 140
6.1.4 Coefficients of Correlations 141
6.1.5 Conclusions 142
6.2 Analysis of ISI 143
6.2.1 Purpose of the Tool 143
6.2.2 School Rating Percentages 144
6.3 Testing of Hypotheses 148
6.3.1 Hypotheses 148
6.3.2 Calculation of T values 148 6.3.3 Testing of Hypothesis 1 149 6.3.4 Testing of Hypothesis 2 151 6.3.5 Testing of Hypothesis 3 152
Chapter VII : Summary, Conclusions, Suggestions 155.169
7. 1 Summary 155
7.2 Major Findings 155
7.3 Educational Implications 163
7.3.1 Background 163
7.3.2 Implications 164
7.4 Suggestions for Future Research 166
Bibliography
I Tool - Attributes of School Image Scale (ASIS) II Tool - Inventory for School Image (ISI)
III Use of the Tool ISI by Schools
IV Sample of Schools - Science Stream, with Principal, Teacher and Student Samples
V Sample of Schools - Non-Science Stream with Principal, Teacher and Student Samples
VI Geographical areas covered under the Sample
VII Tables 14 and 15 containing the data of schools using ISI
vi
List of Tables
Table 1 Showing the pass percentages of
Girls and Boys 56
Table 2 Showing the number of male and
female rank holders 56
Table 3 Showing the number of items under
each Attribute 100
Table 4 Showing the distribution of schools
and the sample 105
Table 5 Showing the sample for the study 107
Table 6 Showing the values and ranks given to the attributes by the various groups in the Science Stream on the items of the
Tool ASIS 118
Table '7 Showing the values and ranks given to the attributes by the various groups in the Non-Science Stream on the items
of the Tool ASIS 121
vii
Table 8 Showing the ranks given to the attributes by the various groups in
Science and Non-Science groups 124 Table 9 Showing the values and ranks given by
the various combinations of groups (Science, Non-Science, Male and Female)
on the items of the Tool ASIS 127 Table 10 Showing the values and ranks given by
the various combinations of groups (Students, Teachers and Principals) on
the items of the Tool ASIS 129 Table 11 Showing the values and ranks of the
various combination of groups categorised according to the total sample values/ranks
(Students, Teachers, Principals) 131 Table 12 Showing the values and ranks of the
various combination of groups categori- sed according to the total sample values/
ranks (Science, Non-Science, Total) 134 Table 13 Showing the ranks of the various combi-
nations of groups categorised according
to the total sample ranks of attributes 137
Table 14 Showing the values calculated for indivi- dual schools (Science Stream) on each of the 50 items. The total values and mean values for subgroups under each category of ASIS are also given school wise
Annexure IV
Table 15 Showing the values calculated for indivi- dual schools (Non-Science Stream) on each of the 50 items. The total values and mean values for subgroups under each category of ASIS are also given school wise
Annexure V
Table 16 Showing the total values and school rating % as given by the Principal, Teachers and Students to their
respective schools (Science Stream) 145
Table 17 Showing the total values and school rating % as given by the Principal, Teachers and Students to their
respective schools (non-Science Stream) 146
Table 18 Showing the School Rating as 147 Percentages
Chart I Showing Comparison of Ranks as given by Science, Non-Science, Male, Female
and Total Samples on ASIS 139
1.1
Overview 11.2 The Educational Scenario 4 1.2.1 Quantitative Growth after Liberation 4 1.2.2 Need for Qualitative Improvement 6 1.2.3 Present Study and Qualitative
Improvement 9
1.3 Statement of the Research Study 13
1.4 Resume of suceeding chapters 14
Chapter I :
IIMTRODUCTEORI
2, 2 Overview
Schools are different. Some are lively, some are happy. By contrast, some are dour and somewhat forbidding. When we walk into the schools and more so, when we live in them as pupils or teachers we feel the differences. Schools have their own tone, their own vibrations and culture. The history of a school provides traditions and a multitude of routines - some good and some not so good - that are taken for granted by organisational members. This culture is the result of the way in which the individuals in the school interact, how they behave towards each other and their expectations of one another. A school's culture has a very powerful influence on the life of those within it or on the success in academic, social, personal aspects that individuals within the schools achieve. Rutter and his colleagues (1979) refer to the common values, beliefs, and ways of doing things as the school's ethos; Glass (1981) has called it tone; Joyce and his colleagues (1993) and
Sergiovanni (1996) prefer the word community. Regardless of how it is labeled, a school's culture (or tone or ethos or climate), greatly influences what goes on in schools (Andersen 1982).
In the 1960s, Coleman's study stated that effects of school on student achievement are minor. However, in the late
1970s educationists began to come to terms with what the culture of the school is all about. It was the British 15000 Hours Study (Rutter et al., 1979) that was instrumental in arguing for the impact of individual school differences on pupils. Individual schools do make a difference to pupils' behaviour and attainment. What is particularly interesting about this developing field of work is not only that schools can and do make a difference to pupil achievement, but that these differences in outcome are systematically related to variations in the school's climate, culture or ethos and their 'quality' as social systems. Firestone and Rosenblum (1988) and Rosenholz, (1989) also arrived at similar results and conclusions.
The effect of schooling has long been of interest to educational researchers and policy makers whose concerns
have included both what to look at in schools and how to look at it. Many consider that the study of schools as a social system had its beginning in the pioneering studies of Getzels and Guba (1952, 1957). Others trace social system inquiry to Waller's (1932) description of school as a miniature society. Some researchers consider Jackson's report on life in the classroom (1968) as the landmark. The subject, however, is complex: studying human behaviour in schools, as in any organisation, involves "ordering and conceptualising a buzzing confusion of simultaneously existing, multilevel, mutually interacting variables"
(Argyris, 1958).
School Climate research evolved from both organizational climate research and school effects research, having inherited instruments, theory and methods from both research paradigms. It is difficult to define school effectiveness. The layman may think of "capable of producing the desired effect", "efficient" or something close to it. However, the term effective can refer to many things:
the atmosphere of the school which should be conducive to learning, discipline, good managerial practice, well taught curriculum and so on.
Each school has its own characteristics, which are shaped by such factors as its location, pupil intake size, resources and, the quality of its staff. If we are concerned with making a school more successful, it is logical to treat the school as a whole entity. Goodlad (1984), in his comprehensive study, concluded that aspects that characterise schools commonly are teaching practices, content or subject matter, instructional materials, student learning, reading, pupil care, school building and school size. These aspects have been researched individually but, when combined, the variables constitute something close to the whole of a school.
2,2 The Educakional Scenario in Goa
1.2.1 Quantitative Growth after Liberation
Goa was under Portuguese rule for about 400 years and was liberated in December 1961. It was part of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu before being constituted as the twenty-fifth state of the
Indian Union on May, 30, 1987. Goa is a small state with a total area if 3,722 sq. kms with a population of
12.07 lakhs. The composition of urban and rural population is 41 and 59 respectively.
Administratively, Goa has 2 districts, North Goa and South Goa. North Goa has 6 talukas while South Goa has 5 talukas, a total of 11 talukas. The state spends, on an average, 23% of its budget on education.
Prior to 1961, Goa had a low socio-economic development. The post-liberation period witnessed a spurt in the fields of education, production, transport, communication and other services. It has recorded an outstanding performance in population control, better quality of life, high life expectancy at birth, high level of literacy, low reproduction rate and infant mortality rate.
The literacy rate, which was 31% at the time of liberation in 1961, is more than 80% today with the rural population having almost the same rate as the urban population. Further, female literacy rate is almost on par with male literacy rate. With low population growth, some schools are facing closure due to lack of students. This has also resulted in good
teacher-pupil ratios - 1:23 at the primary level, 1:31 at the middle level and 1:17 at the Secondary level.
Enrolment at the primary level is almost 100%. About 75% of the teachers are trained at the primary level while this figure is around 97% at the middle and high
school level.
At the Higher Secondary stage, there are approximately, 80 schools with an enrolment of about 23,500 students and over 1,300 teachers, 84% of who are trained. The Teacher-Pupil ratio at the higher secondary level is 1:18. Most of the Higher Secondary Schools exist as separate institutions though a few function in the campus where Colleges are run by the same management.
1.2.2 Zeed for Qualitative Improvement
Soon after liberation, the accent on education was on access and quality was not emphasised much.
Presently, the focus is on quality of education and excellence. Explosions in the areas of knowledge, information and communication make it imperative on
the schools to make the students competent in this fast changing world.
The National Policy on Education (1986) has recommended a reorientation of secondary education.
One of the major challenges before educational planners is to design an education system that would, on the one hand, meet the growing demand for secondary and higher secondary education, and, on the other, ensure that the objective of qualitative viability does not get diluted. Norms have to be laid down regarding the minimum facilities to be provided to every secondary school, in terms of laboratories, libraries, playgrounds etc. because variability in the standards of education available in different schools is a cause of concern.
Higher Secondary Schools in Goa have multiplied but care has not been taken to see that the institutions, which are started, fulfil the minimum of the requirements, as indicated by the descriptors or attributes. There is no need for further expansion of Higher Secondary Schools; there are enough of them
to cater to all the students passing the Secondary School Certificate Examination and desiring opportunities for higher education. It is time now to stabilize and to strengthen the existing institutions so that they function efficiently. It has been observed that very little time is allocated specifically for school improvement. Time is allocated for staff development but the focus here is on the skills of individual teachers. Teachers rarely work together on some school-based issue or problem. Hence, school-wide concerns are neglected. Yet, these are often central to students', teachers' and parents' perceptions of the school.
Higher Secondary Schools, as organisations, can be classified into three broad categories:
a) those which are making efforts to improve themselves;
b) those which are settled down and are content with maintaining their current status;
c) those which have started declining and are likely to become sick soon;
Consequently, the image of the organisation varies.
However, an organisation can change from one status to the other and there is a constant need for identification of assessment criteria so that the schools get a right approach for their elevation. There is hardly any research evidence on the school's image and in the absence of logical, empirical criteria, institutions are unable to assess their performance or improve the image so that these could be effective and render maximal service to their clientele and the society at large. This research study is a step in this direction.
1.2.3 Present study and Qualitative Improvement The present research study is aimed at exploring higher secondary school image. At the outset, a few research questions could be contemplated such as:
a) What are the attributes that make an institution efficient and could lead to its recognition as the one with appreciable image? Which of these could be
the core ones and which have supplementary roles to contribute?
b) Can there be criteria, both external and internal, for empirical validation of the existing school image? If so, is it possible for the institutions to self administer the criteria and identify their strong and weak points?
c) Is there a commonality in the opinions of Students, Teachers, and Principals? If so, where do they converge and diverge in their perceptions? Which perceptions are primary for quality improvement and which ones are secondary?
The study would contribute towards improving the quality of schools by giving
a) a list of ranked dimensions, the presence of which will characterise higher secondary schools in terms of their excellence (very good, good, satisfactory, poor, very poor)
b) a rating scale to assess where they stand as far as these dimensions are concerned and where improvement is required to bring about qualitative changes to enhance the prestige of the institution.
Some educationists talk about classification of schools into good, average and below average, through a process of self-assessment by the schools on a given set of criteria. An external authority may also be involved. The priority is the creation of a minimum proportion of "quality schools" which would be pace setting institutions having optimum level. The second priority is to ensure that no school falls below the minimum level. These schools should be assisted to rise to the best level possible. The qualitative improvement should start with human resources and not necessarily with physical facilities. To achieve this, the present study would provide the necessary guidelines.
The management of many higher secondary schools want to improve their image but do not know how.
This study would answer, to a great extent, this need.
Enhancing the image of a higher secondary school is bound to have motivational effect on the students and teachers leading to better achievement. School improvement effort could begin with a need assessment survey that may solicit input from the school staff to identify school problems and general needs. Alternately, the focus could be on the plus points of the school. However, school staff may not be able to identify the strengths and weaknesses. They need the help of professionals and researchers.
Goodlad (1984) contends that students are very passive in their reaction to school events. Therefore, schools should help to stimulate more student thinking. Further, schools will improve slowly if reforms are thrust upon them. On the other hand, one could focus on the capacity of schools to deal with their own problems, to become self-renewing. However, schools could have difficulty without pursuing a scientific approach and the use of research tools and procedures.
In essence, schools should become self-directing. The functionaries must develop capacity for effecting
renewal mechanism. The Principals should have skills to prepare yearlong institutional plans for school improvement. Studies, such as these will prove useful to educators and practitioners who are interested in improving their schools' image. Goodlad (1984), states that the more satisfying schools were perceived to be taking care of their problems, the more satisfied teachers saw themselves involved in making important decisions. "Developing the capability to effect improvements is more important than effecting a specific change" (p. 282).
1.3 Statement of the Research Study
The title of the present research study is :
"The Image of the School In Goa - a study at
the Higher Secondary stage."
1.4 Resume of succeeding chapters
The thesis is divided into seven chapters. The second chapter deals with the review of related Literature. Chapter three gives the details of the statement of the problem and hypotheses. Chapter four is devoted to the description of the tools of research. The fifth chapter presents the methodology of investigation. Chapter six consists of the presentation, analysis and interpretation of data collected while the seventh and final chapter attempts to present a brief summary of the study and the conclusions arrived at.
Suggestions for further research are also included.
2.1 The Socio-educational dimension 15
2.2 Pioneering Contributions 16
2.3 The Construct of School Image 21
2.4 Other Studies 35
2.5 Conclusions 52
Chapter H :
REVIEV4 OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.S The Socio-educational dimension
The educational process is a two-way process, a social process wherein two or more individuals with similar or differing conditions interact and interrelate with similar or differing consequences. The goal of sociology of education is, therefore, to observe and analyse the structure of the educational system, describe the pattern of its elements and the role they play in relation to each other and in relation to the educational system as a whole. In this way, it attempts to discover how far the structural elements of the educational system are functional or dysfunctional to it and whether the educational system as a whole is functional or dysfunctional for the society as a whole. If the educational system or any of its sub-systems is dysfunctional for the society, the task of the educational sociologist is to find out which elements are dysfunctional and how to rectify them.
The school has long been recognised as a social institution.
Waller's study (1932) is the first qualitative study of the school as a social institution. Halpin and Croft (1963), Baker and Gump (1964), studied the influence of school as an organisation. Gordon (1957), Gross 1958) and Biddle (1964) went into the study of school as a social system of roles and relationships. Flanders (1960), Biddle (1964), Gump (1967) studied the classroom as a social system.
How do schools exert a power impact on children's development? Research, looking at schools as complex social systems - their physical environment, educational philosophies, teacher-pupil interaction patterns, and the larger cultural context in which they are embedded - provides important insights into this question.
2.2 Pioneering Contributions
In the late 1970s, educationists began to come to terms with what the culture of the school is all about. A number of major research reports in the 1960s and early 1970s denied that school differences had any importance for pupil learning. It was the British 15000 Hours Study
(Rutter et al., 1979) that was instrumental in arguing for the impact of individual school differences on pupils.
Individual schools do make a difference to pupils' behaviour and attainment. What is particularly interesting about this developing field of work is not only that schools can and do make a difference to pupil achievement, but that these differences in outcome are systematically related to variations in the school's climate, culture or ethos and their 'quality' as social systems.
Schools, therefore, become really efficient and effective agents of pupils' learning and development or do just the opposite. Thus good schools may increase pupils' achievements; bad schools decrease them. It is a crucial matter especially in a competitive society and in an era of accountability. The effect of schooling has long been of interest to educational researchers and policy makers whose concerns have included both what to look at in
schools and how to look at it. The subject, however, is complex: studying human behaviour in schools, as in any organisation, involves "ordering and conceptualising a buzzing confusion of simultaneously existing, multilevel, mutually interaction variables" (Argyris, 1958). Rutter
et al. (1979) noted at the beginning of their study that research'suggests the importance of the school ethos or atmosphere but, of course, it leaves entirely open the crucial question of what actions by staff (or others) serve to establish particular types of climate".
Taiguri (1968) defined climate and atmosphere as summary concepts dealing with the total environmental quality within an organisation. According to Taiguri, dimensions of an environment include its Ecology (the physical and materials aspects); its Milieu (the social dimension concerned with the presence of persons and groups), its Social system (patterned relationship of persons and groups), and its Culture (social dimension concerned with belief systems, values, cognitive structures and meaning).
Another way to study the dimensions has been the development of theoretical models by some researchers.
Theory here implies systematic ordering of ideas about the phenomena of what goes on in the school. One theoretical model is the input-output debate, when a school with a good image is the one, which could convert inputs into
outputs. Each input is assumed in a linear fashion to contribute somewhat to output. In this economic view of schools, the input variables are money, time, materials and teaching techniques. However, no direct measurement of climate is possible (Brymer et al 1980). The second model presents the school as a cultural system of social relationships among family, teachers, students and peers (Brookover et al. 1979; Rutter et al. 1979). To the extent that schools differ in their social environments, they will differ in learning outcomes leading to a school milieu.
The third model attempts to explore the functioning of the entire system (Goodlad 1975) and views all variables as potentially modified for the benefit of student outcomes (Moos 1979). Whenever the result is positive school outputs, the school is considered to have a good image. The McPartland model states that formal school organisational properties (reward structure, authority structure, task structure and demographic dimensions) affect student outcomes (academic achievement and aspirations, non- academic talents, attitudes towards school), both through the mediation of informal social processes (student-
student, teacher-student, and school climate, defined as morale).
Andersen, Carolyn S. 0982) in her review of research entitled "The Search for School Climate" writes that the image consists of common elements and differences in the climate. Wynne (1980) reported that coherence is a pervasive quality of good schools and this requires variables like purposefulness, consistency, consensus and communication in the school environment.
Halpin and Croft (1963) postulated the continuum of six climate types based on the perceptions of the principal and teachers as a study of the desired characteristics of the leader and the group. It was found that teacher characteristics like espirit (that is, their feeling that their social needs are satisfied), intimacy (feeling of friendliness towards each other) contribute to shaping the image.
Again, characteristics on the part of the principal like consideration, thrust (task-oriented), aloofness, influence the school image. Most studies in the 1960s owe their rationale to the Organisational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ).
Epstein and McPartland (1976) used the construct of
"Quality of School Life" to identify schools with a climate of positive effect and the three factors believed to contribute to the quality of life in a school are:
a) satisfaction (students' general reactions to school)
b) commitment to classwork (students interest in work)
c) reaction to teacher (teacher-student relationship)
2.3 The Construct of School Image
Using Taiguri's dimensions, Carolyn Andersen (1982) describes the following variables perceived by participants or outsiders to be part of the climate. The image of the school emerges out of the perception on such variables or factors.
a) Ecology Variables
the input-output school effects study size of class and school
b) Milieu
teacher characteristics (stability, qualifications, salary)
teacher morale and attitudes - student body characteristics - student moral
c) Social System Variables - administrative organisation
instructional programme
ability grouping (heterogeneous) administrator-teacher rapport good communication
teacher-student relationship teacher shared decision making
opportunity for student participation teacher relationships
community-school relationships involvement in instruction
d) Cultural Variables - teacher commitment - peer norms
- cooperative emphasis expectations
emphasis on academics rewards and praise - consensus
- clear goals
Brookever et al (1977) found that perceptions of students, teachers and principals on some dimensions such as the following contribute to good climate
I. School Climate :
a) sense of academic futility
b) future evaluations and expectations
c) perceived present evaluations and expectations d) perceptions of expectations of teacher push
and teacher-norms e) academic norms
II. Teacher Climate :
f) ability, evaluation, expectations, quality of education/college
g) present evaluation and expectations for high school completion
h) teacher-student commitment to improve i) perceptions of principal's expectations j) academic futility
III. Principal Climate
k) parent concern and expectations for quality 1) efforts to improve
m)principal and parent evaluation of present school quality
n)present evaluation and expectations of students
Studies in school differences and school effectiveness have been conducted at three levels: small-scale investigations, large-scale inquiries and case studies. Findings of researches on school effectiveness can be divided into 11 categories (Reid 1986):
1. school leadership 2. school management 3. school ethos
4. discipline
5. teachers and teaching 6. curriculum
7. student learning 8. reading
9. pupil care
10. school building 11. school size
Each of the above have specific aspects.
Rutter et al. (1979) specified the following 'Things that Characterise Good Schools, Schools where children learn most":
1) More time on task: in good schools, children spend the school day on academic subjects, have assigned home work, are encouraged to take challenging courses and do not spend their time on busy work, play hookey or drop out of school.
2) Emphasis on core skills: in good schools, students are taught the basics - English, Mathematics, Natural and Social Sciences and foreign language rigorously.
3) Good Teachers : in good schools, teachers stress learning and achieving academic goals. They teach actively, focus on tasks, make sure students do their homework and care about the subject they are teaching.
They expect a lot from their students and help them to meet their high expectations; they begin and end their classes on time. They give students clear, honest, prompt feedback about their work and about what they are expected to achieve. They praise students' achievements rather than punishing or humiliating students for failure.
4) Prompt discipline : in good schools, rules are stated clearly and infractions are dealt with immediately, privately, briefly and on the spot
5) High standards and frequent tests: in good schools, standards are high, examinations are tough, tests are challenging, and assignments are substantial
6) Small class size : in good schools, buildings are clean, equipment is in working order, there are pleasant decorations, the furniture is in good repair and educational resources, books and materials are available
Hand (1948) identified the following factors from his study
"What people think about their schools"
a) general satisfaction or dissatisfaction with school b) teachers : treatment of pupils, understanding of
pupils
c) feeling of friendliness among pupils d) discipline
e) workload
f) attending to social and personal problems of pupils g) teaching methods
h) co-curricular activities
i) money required for school programmes j) number of pupils in a class
k) availability of halls, rest rooms, playgrounds 1) cleanliness
m)reporting to parents n) supervision -
Joyce, Hersch and McKibbin (1983,1993) categorised the attributes of effective schools into two - those having to do with the school's social organisation and those having to do with the school's instructional patterns.
These are described below :
Social Organisation Instruction and Curriculum Clear academic and social High academic learning time
behaviour goals Frequent and monitored homework Order and discipline Frequent monitoring of student High expectations progress
Teacher efficacy Coherently organised curriculum Pervasive caring Variety of teaching strategies Public rewards & incentives Opportunities for student Administrative leadership responsibility Community support
a)
Clear academic and social behaviouracademic
achievement is constantly emphasised and teachers,
parents and students share common values and
understanding about the school's achievement goals.
b) Order and discipline : basic rules of conduct have been agreed upon throughout the school, and teachers feel responsibility for enforcing behavioural norms both in their own particular classes and across the school.
c) High expectations : Teachers and other staff hold high standards for students. They convey to students an "I care" and "can do" attitude and demand that each student may aspire for excellence.
d) Teacher efficacy : Teachers also have high expectations for themselves and strong belief that they can teach every child
e) Pervasive caring, : Teachers and other adults in the school develop a caring atmosphere. Their demands on students are not viewed as cruel and judgmental but as fair and caring. They communicate and celebrate student achievement
f) Public rewards and incentives : Effective schools have devised ways to publicly reward student successes and
achievements. Student work is displayed, honour rolls are published, and active communication exists between the school and parents
g) Administrative leadership Principals in effective schools care deeply about the school's academic programmes. They support teacher and student efforts and they help set the tone for high expectations and pervasive caring
h) Community support : Staff in effective schools find ways to involve parents and community in the school's programmes. This involvement goes beyond open houses to include such activities as school beautification, tutoring, and active fund raising for the school
i) High academic learning time : Teachers in effective schools have found ways to maximize the time devoted to academic learning. They waste little time getting classes started and move smoothly from one activity to another with minimum disruption. Schoolwide, they have found ways to keep administrative disruptions to a minimum
j) Frequent and monitored homework : Homework is required and is checked by the teachers. Checking and giving feedback to students is one way for teachers and other adults in the school to tell students that they have high expectations and that they care.
k) Frequent monitoring of student progress : Through tests, quizzes and informal devices, teachers keep track of student progress and give students and parents helpful feedback on this progress.
1) Coherently organised curriculum : The curriculum is closely connected to the goals and objectives of the schools and is linked to the major evaluation and testing procedures. Teachers know what other teachers are teaching and match their own instruction accordingly
m)Variety of teaching strategies : Teachers in effective schools have broad repertoires of teaching strategies and employ these to help meet the school's instructional goals
n) Opportunities for student responsibility : The adults in effective schools find ways to engage students in running their school through devices such as student government, and they encourage peer tutoring, hall monitoring, and other opportunities for students to engage in leadership behaviours.
Goodlad (1984), identified a number of themes, which tell us a great deal about schools and schooling. These themes, according to him, collectively define and describe schooling. Using them as descriptors, it becomes possible both to describe a school and to differentiate one school from another according to the data related to each theme.
The themes help us to see that schooling has a common set of characteristics and school-to-school differences result from the sum total of how these characteristics manifest themselves in each school. These themes are :
a) Schools' functions : the schools should be self- conscious of their educational functions.
b) School's relevance : the most demanding task of the school is to make itself relevant to the students,
who are school's primary clients by satisfying the interests of students.
c) How teachers teach : Teaching is learner-centred with emphasis on the completion of individual or
group tasks. Constant feedback is given.
d) The circumstances surrounding teaching : Schools are for students. At the same time students are influenced by teachers who in turn are influenced by their workplace.
e) The Curriculum : This consists of the array of activities, materials and tests in both academic and non-academic aspects.
f) Distribution of resources for learning : One of the most important of these is time. Children tend to learn what they are taught. Teaching requires time.
Some schools utilise it carefully while others forget the time is the most precious learning resource at the disposal of the school. The allocation of teachers to subjects is another aspect.
g) Equity : access to knowledge has little to do with race or socio-economic status of students
h) Hidden Curriculum : Emphasis is laid on how they learn and not on what they learn. The schools teach values.
i) Satisfaction : The composite satisfaction of Principal, teachers, students and parents constitutes a significant indication of the school's quality including achievement. It includes cordial inter-personal relations.
j) Need for data : The schools need data to set, with some confidence, an agenda for school improvement. There is need for data whether the curricular activities of individual students are well balanced. There is open meeting of minds on the part of principals, teachers, students and parents' regarding school weaknesses, problems and strengths. School should become a unit for improvement.
2.4 Other Studies
There have been a few studies related to the School as a whole, as an entity. There are no studies in the area of school image.
Gupta (1984) conducted a study on "The Concept of Institution Environment in Jammu City Schools" with the following two objectives
a) whether a construct of institutional environment really existed in the Indian school setting, and
b) to identify the basic components underlying the construct of institutional environment
His findings were :
i) According to students, discipline, staff qualification, facilities like playgrounds, games, and laboratory are significant dimensions constitution institutional environment.
ii) teaching methods and the school Principal were significant dimensions constituting institutional environment.
Dimensions like control, monthly tests, fees, rewards and punishments were not perceived as important by them as compared to other dimensions like educational facilities, staff and discipline, library and laboratory
iii) According to experts, administrators, teachers and parents there was something within the institutions which resulted in differences in the educational outcomes of students : types of schools, facilities available, financial aid, staff qualities, involvement of parents, teachers and students, workload, political influence, job security.
Factors that influence the environment of a school are : school building, library, laboratory, play fields, staff qualifications. Nature of the head of the institution, administrative functioning and discipline were significant
factors. Teaching staff, teaching methods and educational facilities in the school were the most important factors for forming the institutional environment.
Almost all schools had Parents' or Parent-Teachers' Associations. All pupils favour homework. 46% of the pupils felt that moral instruction programmes in their schools was of immense help in inculcating faith in God and values like honesty, kindness, service, sense of duty, courage and humility. Factors of school life best liked by pupils were good teaching, prizes and shields won by the school in inter-school and open competitions, besides good results at the public examination.
r&istry (1985) studied the quality of life as a function of organisational climate and pupil control ideology. He found that area, sex, socio-economic status did not influence the quality of life. The quality of school life was found directly proportional to their climate. Patel (1987), conducted an exploratory study on the dimensions of classroom environment.
The individual aspects and attributes, which have been studied, are classified under various heads.
Christina Augustine (1980) in her M.Ed dissertation entitled "The style of functioning of award-winning schools"
concluded that in such schools pupils enthusiastically maintain good gardens, both flower and vegetable, the libraries are well equipped and put to better use.
Boarding home is a special feature of most of these schools where pupils are trained well. These schools have publications of their own and function as the lead school in a school complex. The parent-teacher associations help better functioning of schools. The student council maintains discipline. The sites of these award-winning schools are suitable for efficient management and the school surrounding is very neat. There are good buildings, laboratories, furniture and equipment. Amenities like drinking water, toilets are available and everything is kept neat and tidy. These schools choose good teachers. The administrative matters are attended to promptly and efficiently.
Weingarten (1975) compared the difference between students' and teachers' perceptions of school environment.
Significant relationships were found between student and teacher perceived dimensions of school. Another comparative study conducted by Smith (1977) tested the hypothesis that perceptions of school climate were the same for students, teachers and administrators in Junior high schools. The administrators' responses were more positive than those of teachers who responded more positively than students. Further, perceptions of school climate were more positive in small schools than in large ones. Organ (1981) and Copeland (1983) found significant relationship between student perceptions of school climate and school achievement. Dietrich and Bailey (1996) after studying two high schools concluded that positive school climate can be established even in schools where conditions are less than ideal.
There are many studies in the area of Organisational Climate, Leadership Behaviour and Job Satisfaction.
The major tools used were the Leadership Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) by Halpin, the Organisational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ)
by Halpin and Croft as well as the Purdue Teacher Opinionnaire. The studies reveal that the majority of Indian schools have closed climate followed by open and autonomous (Baraiya 1985, Swatantra Devi 1985, Mistry
1985, Panda 1985, Prakasham 1985). Teacher Morale was comparatively high in open climates (Chaichana 1981, Vichao 1983). Other studies in the area of organizational climate and effectiveness are by Veeraraghavan (1986),
Mohan Rao (1985), Srivastava (1985) and Lalita Kumari (1984).
Classroom climate is a significant determinant of pupils' learning. Sharma (1983) studied student morale. Academic motivation and its relationship with classroom climate was investigated at the high school level by Kumar (1984). A classroom with high classroom climate had high pupil psyche and achievement (Doctor 1984, L. Kumari 1984, Singh 1984, Sharma 1983) found positive correlation between educational environment and student morale.
There are variables interacting in the environment of a school that affect academic achievement. Rani (1980) and Shashidhar (1981) concluded that academic
achievement was influenced, among other things, by institutional factors. Rani measured pupils' perceptions of institutional characteristics on an environment-assessment inventory prepared for the purpose while Shashidhar measured school organisational climate using Halpin and Croft's OCDQ. Desai (1979) and Hirunvel (1980) used Thelen's Classroom Climate Scale for their studies in Gujarat and both found positive relationship between classroom climate and pupils' academic achievement.
However, Amarnath (1980) found no positive relationship.
All of the above studies discussed above, highlight the importance of environment provided by the school itself in the promotion of better achievement.
There have been other studies investigating the correlates of achievement such as the nature of school, size of school, type of curriculum offered, and school teacher ratio. The Government Central Pedagogical Institute (GCPI) (1981) studied the factors responsible for good and poor percentage of examination results. It was found that proper facility of library, reading room, laboratory, playground etc. helped in increasing the" percentage of examination results. The other important factors which helped were the
teaching experience of the staff and Principal, the methods of teaching, regular correction of homework, regular evaluation, healthy relationship between the Principal and the staff, cooperation between teachers and parents and good management.
Classroom climate was found to play a crucial role in student achievement (Lalita Kumari 1984, Singh 1984).
Organisational climate has been found to possess a positive relationship with students' maturity, students' morale and students' achievement (Gupta 1984, Puranik 1985, and Sharma 1983). Arunajatai (1979) found that the performance of a school in the SSLC examination seemed to be the overriding criterion in assessing the efficiency of a school. Singhal (1984) found that academic achievement was positively related to type of management, socio- economic-status of students and classroom climate
Kerawalla and Pandya (1996), studied the effect of school ethos on student achievement. The dimensions of school ethos were:
a) inputs : management' of schools, types of schools,
infrastructure, co-curricular activities;
teacher qualities
b)processes: students' perception of teaching, evaluation and planning process in the school students' relationships with the Principal, teachers and peers.
School effectiveness covers : tenure or length of time;
scholastic performance of students, social and technical skill attainment; positive attitudes towards school and the wider society; desirable values, satisfaction with schooling;
adequate self concept.
Urwick and Junaidu (1991) found that school facilities like building, separate classroom student desks determine the very organisation of teaching-learning activities and they influence learner achievement. Similarly, Mwanwenda and Mwanwenda (1987) found that students who belonged to schools with sufficient classrooms and seating places perform better than those studying in schools without these facilities. Koval (1991) studied the effect of selected physical features of the general elementary classroom on
the learning environment and found that teaching aids, good physical conditions in the classroom affect the learning environment.
Das (1974) found significant relationship between physical facilities in schools and the quality of education. Mathew (1997) found significant correlation between physical study facilities and achievement. Singhal (1986) studied the optimum teacher-pupil ratio in schools. There are researches which focus on the factors underlying student indiscipline in educational institutions (Singh 1986, Bandopadyay 1984) which had poor infrastructural facilities.
Joshi (1984) and Rajamony (1993) were of the view that the performance of students and the quality of education depended upon the effectiveness or quality of teachers.
Chhaya (1974) studied the psychological characteristics of effective teachers. The study found that effective teachers had significantly better personality adjustment, attitude towards teaching and emotional stability than ineffective teachers. Grewal (1976) conducted a study on intellectual and personality correlates of teacher effectiveness.
Dasgupta (1977) found that the presence of factors like human relationship, socio-economic conditions, organi- sation of teaching-learning process and socio-cultural setting of the community affected efficiency of the teacher.
Studies on teachers deal with role perceptions, conflict and job satisfaction. Thakore (1972) examined student truancy
and found that it was related to negative teacher attitudes, poor school adjustment as well as dissatisfactory family environment. Some other studies deal with teachers themselves. Gupta (1979) found that female primary teachers had better teacher traits and attitudes towards pupils. Patel (1986) studied the role perception of primary teachers and Bhamwari (1986) on the role perspective of women teacher, both on socio-psychological variables.
The other studies are by George (1982) on role expectations, role performance and training needs of teachers of English, on role conflict by Mehta (1985). There are studies on job satisfaction by Dixit (1986), Shah (1982) and Nayak (1982). The study by Shah revealed that about 88% of women teachers were satisfied with the job and though the salaries were poor, they would not like to
change their occupation because of the high esteem associated with teaching. Wera (1982) prepared a tool to measure teachers' role commitment and conflict as well as an attitude scale for each in Thailand.
Teachers' job satisfaction is important for school organisation and improvement. Teachers' job satisfaction
significantly varies with organisational climate and it was higher in open climate schools (Abdul, 1986, Kulsum 1986, Sarkar 1985). Tali (1984) found that the quality of teaching and efficiency of high school teachers were adversely affected by poor job conditions and inadequate provision of facilities. Disenchantment among teachers was found to be related negatively to school effectiveness while feeling of espirit and felling of intimacy were found to be positively related to school effectiveness (Srivastava 1985).
Thapan (1984,) examined the triangular relationship between ideology, school and society through the case study of the Rishi Valley School in South India run by the Krishnamurthi Foundation. The teachers and students
—were—observed and interviewed with respect to the ideology guiding the school and its working, value system, conduct,
47 activities, the process of interaction between and among the participants in the school system. The study revealed the existence of two different kinds of teachers, the ideologue and the professional. Pupil culture consisted of interaction with extended influences, predominant among which were the home and the teachers. The teacher pupil interaction was viewed as the central process in the school.
Informality was the defining characteristic of teacher-pupil Interaction.
Bisht (1986) tried to determine the interpersonal trust ' among undergraduates and their teachers. The study found that interpersonal trust is lower among "science girls' than among "science boys" while there was no difference among boys and girls in Arts subjects. Ghose (1985) studied the influence of teacher-student relationship on student unrest. He found that peremptory and perfunctory attitudes of teachers were largely responsible for the indisciplined behaviour of students and the indifferent attitude of students towards their teachers. There was also teacher-non-teacher relationship, which influenced --stulltitt-s—to treat their teachers with indifference.
Rao (1986) studied classroom atmosphere as a result of the interaction of teachers and pupils. Gautama (1974) and Reddy (1981) examined the inter and intra group interactions among students and teachers.
Studies on Leadership behaviour- of Principals were conducted by Ara 1986, Baraiya (1985), Pandey 1985, Patel 1983, Phongchun (1985), Das (1983) found no significant relationship between Principals' administrative behaviour and school climate and students' achievement. Kushdil (1985) and Sarkar (1985) studied the role perception of Principals and teachers in the organisation. The influence of the values of Principals that affect institutional efficiency was studied by Lobo (1983), Sampuran Sigh (1985).
The study of Edwards (1987) revealed that partnership types of parent involvement have a strong effect on school climate resulting in improved communication among all those interested in a child's academic achievement. While majority of parents were willing to go to school to find out solutions to their children's academic problems, about 50%
were not interested in the scholastic achievement of their
children. Majority of the parents did not care to attend meetings at school while others showed little interest in the deliberations. Mehra (1980) also found that parental interests and positive attitude to the child's school led to better achievement, social adjustment and development of self-concept. Joshi's sociometric study (1980) found out the personal academic and social characteristics of stars and isolates.
Sriratna (1983) found that community participation in Thailand was too low to improve school effectiveness while Suwimon (1985) studied parents attitude towards school programmes in central Thailand.
Liggett (1974) wanted to determine if the environment as perceived by students in small senior high schools is different from environment as perceived in larger senior high schools. It was found that students from small senior high schools experienced greater environmental press to achieve high academic standards. Stekelenburg (1991), found low correlation between the size of the school and academic achievement. Welsh (1990) found that larger school sizes were to some degree less academically
productive than small ones. Nath (1974) found that achievement of pre-university students was related to student teacher ratio. Bokil (1959) found that pass percentage was the highest in schools of medium size.
Pratap and Raju (1973) found that aided schools in some rural areas of Andhra Pradesh are ill organised in terms of management and inadequate in human and material resources resulting in poor student performance. Verma (1982) found improper role performance by adults and the lack of adequate communication channels among and between them as major dysfunction in secondary schools of Delhi. The financial position was poor and school buildings in bad shape. There were many malpractices in the school. The Principals were authoritarian and coercive.
The communication between members of the staff was poor.
The indifference of Principals, teachers and parents was responsible for poor classroom climate.
Bhagabati (1987) found that co-curricular activities played an important role in the adjustment of physical, emotional, mental and social aspects of adolescents.
Students participating in social as well as co-curricular
activities were better adjusted than those who avoided and did not participate in them.
School Image can also be perceived through
metaphors,
which are quasi-pictorial representations. We possess images of organisations and of life within them and that these images are influential in guiding our thoughts and behaviour within organisations. In addition, it has been claimed that metaphor is a significant force in our lives.
The images we have are likely to be metaphorical in nature, likely to be acquired in part through metaphor, and, similarly, it is likely that they can be identified and described in part through metaphor. Some of the images of the school that emerge through metaphors are School as a Prison, as a Drama Rehearsal Room (Starratt, 1990), as a Knowledge Workplace (Schlechty and Joslin, 1986), as Collaborate Work of Art Sztajn, 1992), as a Little House of Horrors (Steinhoff and Owen 1989). Grady (1993) studied the image that teachers have about the life of their schools through a questionnaire called Images of Schools through metaphors, which brought out varied images about the school.
