An Introduction to Persuasion and Argument
Moving people to a belief,
position, or course of action
Persuasion vs. Argument
§ persuasion and argument are often used interchangeably
§ persuasion is a broad term, which includes many tactics designed to move people to a position, a belief, or a course of action
§ argument is a specific kind of persuasion based
on the principles of logic and reasoning
The Importance of
Argument and Persuasion
§ In everyday life…
appealing a grade, asking for a raise, applying for a job, negotiating the price of a new car, arguing in traffic court
§ In academic life…
defending your ideas, engaging in intellectual debate
§ On the job…
getting people to listen to your ideas, winning buy-in, getting your boss to notice, getting cooperation, moving people to action
§ In writing…
irrefutably making your point, writing to be read
§ In reading and listening…
critically evaluating other’s arguments, protecting yourself from unethical persuasive tactics, recognizing faulty reasoning when you see it
What Exactly is an Argument?
§ an argument involves the process of establishing
a claim and then proving it with the use of logical
reasoning, examples, and research
The Essential Ingredients of an Argument
§ An issue open to debate
§ Your position on the issue
§ Your reasons for that position
§ Evidence to support your reasons
experience, expert opinion, research, statistics
The Architecture of Argument
YOU R POSI T ION
THE OPPOSITION
The Architecture of Argument
THE OPPOSITION
YOUR
POSI
TION
The Architecture of Argument
YOU R POSI T ION
RE AS O N
THE OPPOSITION
The Architecture of Argument
YOUR POSI TION REASON
THE OPPOSITION
The Architecture of Argument
YOU R POSI T ION
RE AS O N
EVIDENCE
THE OPPOSITION
The Structure of Classical Argument
Introduction
Thesis Statement
Background Information Reasons and Evidence
The Opposing View and the Refutation Conclusion
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The Thesis Statement…
§
is most important sentence in your paper
§
is an assertion
§
is contentious
§
answers the question: “What am I trying to prove?”
§
brings focus to the entire essay
§
lets the reader know the main idea of the paper
§
is not a factual statement or an announcement of purpose,
but a claim that has to be proven throughout the paper
Which thesis statement is the most effective for an
argument about the need for V-chips in television sets?
§ Parents, often too busy to watch television shows with their families, can monitor their children’s
viewing habits with the aid of the V-chip.
§ To help parents monitor their children’s viewing habits, the V-chip should be a required feature for television sets sold in the U.S.
§ This paper will describe a V-chip and examine the uses of the V-chip in American-made
television sets.
Using a Reasonable Tone
§ Shows you are fair-minded and therefore adds to your credibility
§ When you acknowledge the opposition with balanced language, it shows that your respect the opposing views
§ No matter how passionate you are about the
issue, don’t resort to careless, harsh words; this
would show more about your than the issue
Offering a Counterargument
§
Addressing the opposition
demonstrates your credibility as a writer
§
It shows that you have researched multiple sides of the argument and have come to an informed decision
§
Remember, keep a balanced tone
when attempting to debunk the
opposition
Counter-arguing Effectively
Counter-arguing Effectively
§ conceding to some of your opposition’s concerns can demonstrate respect for their opinions
§ remain tactful yet firm
§ using rude or deprecating language can cause your audience to reject your position without carefully considering your
claims
The Art Rhetoric of
http://www.pbase.com/jamesnesbitt/image/43604463
What is rhetoric?
§ Aristotle defines rhetoric as
§ The ability to discover all available means of
persuasion in a given situation.
In simple terms, rhetoric is the art of speaking or
writing EFFECTIVELY to persuade an audience..
Whenever you read or listen to an argument, you must ask yourself,
§ ”Is this persuasive?
And if so, to
whom?"
Where is Rhetoric used?
Not just in speeches…
§ Every essay
§ Political cartoon, photograph, advertisement
§ Documentary films (lighting, music, what to show,
what to leave out, etc)
Types of Rhetoric
§ Manipulative rhetoric
§ Deceptive rhetoric
§ Civil and effective rhetoric
§ Receptive rhetoric
It is a part of our job as informed citizens and consumers to understand how rhetoric works so that we can be wary of
manipulation or deceit, while appreciating effective and
civil communication.
What kind of rhetoric is this?
Manipulation rhetoric
This is an example of a manipulative rhetoric
because it is manipulating men into thinking that
they are not men if they do not join the navy to
help with the war efforts.
What about this?
Deceptive rhetoric
§ The product, POM Wonderful, claims to have
"lifesaving" capabilities and asserts that it can be used to treat or prevent heart disease and
various cancers. As one might imagine, this
began a craze over pomegranate juice, which is by no means a miracle drug. The Federal Trade Commission sought to protect consumers and demanded that POM Wonderful discontinue the manipulative advertisements and health "claims"
because they had no support.
Occasion, Context, & Purpose
§ Occasion—The time and place the text was written or spoken.
§ Context—The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding the text.
§ Purpose—The goal the speaker wants to
achieve.
The Rhetorical Triangle aka Aristotelian Triangle
Another important aspect of the rhetorical situation is the relationship among the speaker, audience, and subject.
Why are these elements important?
What is the relationship between these elements?
The Rhetorical Triangle
SPEAKER
AUDIENCE SUBJECT
TEXT
Rhetorical Triangle
§ The speaker is the person or group who creates a text. It is important to not only think of the speaker as a name, but to consider the description of the speaker.
§ The audience is the listener, viewer, or reader of a text or performance, but it is important to note that there may be multiple audiences.
§ The subject is the topic.
The Three Persuasive Appeals
Logos, Pathos, and Ethos
Aristotle (384–322 BC)
§ philosopher
§ author
(170 books; 47 surviving)
§ teacher
§ scientist
His primary gift to the world was proof that the universe was not controlled by blind chance or magic, but by a set of rational laws which could be discovered, analyzed, and catalogued to guide human behavior. Aristotle gave mankind the gift of logic.
Three persuasive appeals
§ Logos (Logic)
§ The appeal to reason
§ Pathos (Emotion)
§ The appeal to emotion
§ Ethos (Credibility)
§ The appeal of one’s character
All persuasive appeals are really
about involving your audience.
Example of emotional appeal
(Pathos)“ For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar’s angel. Judge, O you gods, how dearly
Caesar lov’d him!
This was the most unkindest cut of all”
– from Julius Caesar
Example of emotional appeal
(Pathos)“ …But one hundred years later, we must face the tragic fact that the Negro is still not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land…”
– Martin Luther King Jr.
Pathos: Using Anger
§ The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
provides a safe refuge for 180 species of migratory birds, serves as a birthing
ground for one of the hemisphere's
largest caribou herds and has been home to the Gwinch'in people for a thousand
generations. Ninety-five percent (95%) of
Alaska's North Slope is already available
to Big Oil, but these companies want it
all.
The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge provides a safe refuge for 180 species of migratory birds, serves as a birthing ground for one of the hemisphere's largest caribou herds and has been home to the Gwinch'in
people for a thousand generations.
Ninety-five percent (95%) of Alaska's
North Slope is already available to Big Oil,
but these companies want it all.
How do I identify pathos?
§ Connotative diction
§ Diction
§ Imagery
§ Figurative language (metaphor, personification, hyperbole, etc. )
§ Carefully-crafted syntax (sentence structure)
§ Personal anecdotes (experiences or stories)
Leveraging your credibility
(Ethos)§ credibility is the audience’s
response to you as the source of the message
§ credibility has three sources:
§ knowledge
§ image
§ relationships
How do I identify ethos?
§ Stating qualifications for expertise
§ Using first person plural pronouns (“we”)
§ Citing relevant authorities
§ Citing relevant allusions
Questions to test credibility
§ Has the reader been able to rely on what you have said in the past? If they are unfamiliar with you…
§ Do you know what you’re talking about? Are you familiar with all sides of the issue?
§ Have you done your research on the issue?
§ Have you documented your research thoroughly and accurately?
§ Have your thoughtfully addressed
the opposition?
“I think; therefore, I am.”
Example of logical appeal
(Logos)§ There is no room for the clouds of emotion in this straightforward formula; it makes purely a logical appeal.
Logic is the most important and the most effective of the persuasive appeals.
How do I identify logos?
§ Facts
§ Statistics
§ Research
§ Referring to experts
§ Cause & effect
Let’s analyze!
§ What modes of persuasions are used here?
“America's older citizens
have rightly been called the
"greatest generation." It is morally unacceptable that the people that built this country -- our senior
citizens -- should suffer hunger in a land of plenty, which they helped to
create.”
-from America’s Second Harvest program
“America's older citizens have rightly been called the "greatest
generation." It is morally unacceptable that the people that built this country -- our senior
citizens -- should suffer hunger in a land of
plenty, which they helped to create.”
-from America’s Second Harvest program
He already knows what he wants to be when he grows up.
What kind of society raises six-year olds on dreams of suicide/homicide and hatred? A society that targets Israel.
They target Israel, because Israel shares America’s values – democracy, freedom of religion, women’s rights, a free press, scientific achievement and a burgeoning, open economy.
By supporting Israel’s struggle against terror, you are helping defend the cause of freedom, not just in Israel, but here in America and throughout the free world.
Israel. The front line of the free world.
Some Ways to Use the Three Appeals
Credibility Logic Emotion
§ Show that you are fair- and open- minded
§ Point to other
“experts” or an
authority other than yourself
§ Cite research
§ Show why people should listen to you and believe you
§ Rely primarily on facts
§ Use deductive or inductive reasoning to reach your
conclusion
§ Use classical
argument, including reason and
evidence to support your claim
§ Use emotionally charged or highly connotative words
§ Appeal to peoples fears, concerns, passions, vanity, sense of justice, and so forth
§ Take advantage of rhythm and refrain in language
If you wish to persuade me, you must think my thoughts, feel my feelings, and speak my words.
–MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO
