Master in Architecture
(GIS)
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1. Details of Module and its StructureModule Detail
Subject Name M.Arch – Architecture
Paper Name GIS
Module Name/Title Cartography – 4
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2.3. 2. Development Team
Role Name
National Coordinator
Subject Coordinator Dr. Monsingh D. Devadas Paper Coordinator Dr. Pratheep Moses Content Writer/Author (CW) Dr. S. Vijaysagar Content Reviewer (CR) Dr. Pratheep Moses Language Editor (LE)
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CARTOGRAPHY AND MAP MAKING INTRODUCTION
Cartography is the discipline dealing with the conception, production, dissemination and study of maps. Thus Cartography is “the art, science and technology of making maps, together with their study as scientific documents and works of art” The Goals of Cartography is to communicate geographical information graphically and the look of a map depends on the needs of the audience and the point that you aim to convey. The process of map design involves harmony, composition and clarity. Indeed, most of our representations and communications about things and events around us, in history, even in the future, rely on geography and cartography. Usually we don’t think about how common place maps and geographic information are, so you might never have given it much thought. Yet maps and geographic information are essential to how you know the world.
Modern geography and cartography share a symbiotic relationship that is an important basis for many other fields of science and other professions. Geography analyzes and explains human and environmental phenomena and processes taking place on the earth’s surface, improving our understanding of the world. Cartography develops the theories, concepts, and skills for describing and visualizing the things and events or patterns and processes from geography, communicating this understanding. Geography involves a broad set of theories, concepts, and skills that undergo constant development and refinement. Cartography likewise changes and develops new approaches and skills as knowledge, culture, and technology change. Because of their usefulness, geography and cartography are parts of a sheer endless number of human activities. Biologists, geneticists, architects, planners, advertisers, soldiers, and doctors are just a few of the scientists and professionals that use geography and cartography. However; because geography and cartography are so commonplace it’s easy to overlook them. If you want to understand how to use and communicate better with geographic information and maps, then you need to examine them closer.
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With more understanding of geography’s and cartography’s basic concepts you will be able to work better in any field.
Better understanding of the geographic and cartographic activities means just that. Geography and cartography have always been open-ended disciplines. Many other disciplines and fields of human endeavor have drawn on their knowledge and skills and continue to do so. Recent technological innovations further broaden possibilities for people to make measurements of geographic things and events, operate and transform these measurements, and represent the measurements as information and maps. The circle of people working with concepts from geography and cartography has grown tremendously in the last twenty years. This has much to do with the increased availability of computers and programs for working with geographic information. That term sounds simple, but turns out to be highly complex. Until some chapters later, to just get things going though, you might want to think of geographic information as you would about radiation: you can’t necessarily see it, but it will definitely have effects. The main difference is that the effects of geographic information will, or should, be always helpful with few side effects. Geographic information is of course very different than maps in many ways. One of the most fundamental differences is that geographic information is very, very easy to change, whereas maps, if changed, are usually destroyed somehow. This means that geographic information can be used many times, a great advantage over maps.
Indeed, many geographers and cartographers would claim that recent innovations have made geography and cartography more accessible than ever before. Farmers can use GPS and satellite images to help disperse fertilizers and pesticides more accurately, safely, and economically. Fire departments route fire trucks to their destinations based on analysis of road networks and real-time traffic information. You may even have had the chance to experience these changes. Many cars now come equipped with satellite navigation systems that rely on dashboard map displays to help drivers find the way. Geographic information systems are used also in many research facilities and offices to help analyze and manage resources. Improved geographic and cartographic technology has been a key part in leading to important economic developments not only now, but in the past as well. The astrolabe used by navigators in the middle ages changed the way locations were determined and mapped; exploration became more accurate and safer. Off-set printing introduced in the late
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nineteenth century made it possible to produce series of maps by combinations of different plates;
maps became common-place in books, magazines, and newspapers. For you, the most significant geographic and cartographic innovations probably arise from the computer and the development of information technology for processing data during the last 40 some years. The fields of geography and cartography entered an unparalleled symbiosis with the introduction of information technology for processing geographic information. This symbiosis resulted in a new field called Geographic Information Systems (GIS), which, since the 1960s has grown in to a major information technology field and a science.
People from many academic backgrounds correctly point out that the relationship between geography and cartography has changed and continues to change as a result of technological change; sometimes they even question the future of cartography. However, it is apparent that many of the key geographic and cartographic concepts established over thousands of years remain important. In fact, one could claim that these fields are really not changing conceptually, but only in degree. As information technology becomes commonplace many more people are now able to do things without the years of training that only cartographers and geographers previously had. Of course, because of all the people now doing work with geography and cartography on computers, one could also argue that the underlying concepts and skills of geography and cartography have become more relevant. Both are certainly true, however; without understanding of the concepts and skills, the best intents can easily go wrong. Obviously, professionals always need to produce the highest quality and always benefit from better understanding of the concepts and skills–regardless of how much information technology is capable of doing.
HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY
Earliest maps are figurative, ceremonial, artistic
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100 A.D. – the Greeks develop concepts of geometry
1200 A.D. - 'church maps' of the Dark Ages
1300 A.D. - Renaissance brings major expansion of world knowledge, travel
1680 AD – the Enlightenment – concept of 'Western science' and concern with positional accuracy
1800s – place => space; concept of distribution; thematic maps come into being;
environmental data becomes important
1950+ - systems approach to the environment => reintegration of themes and concept of cartographic modelling
Distinguishing Geographic Information from Maps
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Maps remain important but more and more maps are produced with geographic information. Some people now suggest that most maps are simply interfaces to geographic information databases.
Several years ago, separating geographic information from maps would be complicated. Maps, following the International Cartographic Association, are science and art. Geographic information was interpreted or symbolized data. It’s simpler now. In this book maps are a form of output of geographic information. Maps are the most common form of output and have been essential to our understanding of the world for millennia. Maps can be drawn by hand and constructed by hand, but nowadays are mostly prepared using geographic information.
The computerization of cartography changes the possibilities you have for working with the underlying geographic information. Geographic information is usually presented as maps, but tables, figures, and hybrid output forms are also legitimate output forms. Geographic information is what is used in GIS. Data is what information is before it is used and makes sense to the persons creating or using the geographic information or map. Earlier in this chapter, I compared GI to radiation. Now, starting there, we can think of the effect of information: if we say it is information it has at least the potential of having an effect. Data may sit in an archive for years and years—never having an effect until someone looks through the data, makes sense out of it, and “converts” it to information.
Geographic information is not data. Data can become information, or may have been information, but it is only the raw recording of measurements used for creating information. To become information, it must be put into relationship with a purpose (or purposes) and (potential) use. Data can simultaneously be information and data for two or more people, if one person uses it unchanged as information and another uses it as the basis for creating information. In other words, one person’s data is another person’s information. How do we know? Apply the sense test. If the data, whatever form it is represented in makes sense to us it is information; if it is just a collection of figures, values, characteristics, texts, lines, etc. lacking meaning; it is just data.
Essence of Cartography The essence of cartography is
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Atlas
Globe
Map
Atlas
An atlas is a collection of maps; it is typically a map ofEarth or a region of Earth, but there are atlases of the other planets (and their satellites) in the Solar System. Furthermore, atlases of anatomy exist, mapping out the human body or other organisms.[1] Atlases have traditionally been bound into book form, but today many atlases are in multimedia formats. In addition to presenting geographic features and political boundaries, many atlases often feature geopolitical, social, religious and economic statistics. They also have information about the map and places in it.
Globe
A globe is a three-dimensional, spherical, scale model of Earth (terrestrial globeor geographical globe) or other celestial body such as a planet or moon. While models can be made of objects with arbitrary or irregular shapes, the term globe is used only for models of objects that are approximately spherical. The word “globe” comes from the Latin word globus, meaning round mass or sphere. Some terrestrial globes include relief to show mountains and other features on the Earth’s surface. There are also globes, called celestial globes or astronomical globes, which are spherical representations of the celestial sphere, showing the apparent positions of the stars and constellations in the sky.
Map
A map is a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, and themes. Many maps are static two-dimensional, geometrically accurate (or approximately accurate) representations of three-dimensional space, while others are dynamic or interactive, even three-dimensional. Although most commonly used to depict geography, maps may represent any space, real or imagined, without regard tocontext or scale; e.g. brain mapping, DNA mapping and extraterrestrial mapping.
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A map is, usually, considered to be a drawing to scale of the whole or part of the surface of the earth on plane surface, it is a manually or a mechanically drawn picture of the earth showing the location and distribution of various natural and cultural phenomena.
A rough drawing of a landscape without scale and co-ordinates and without much care for the aesthetic beauty is called a sketch.
A drawing is depiction of landscape in proper scale and is oriented towards north direction
Whereas a drawing is considered a map when it is to scale, north oriented and is referred to a CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM
Types of Maps
For most people maps are really more than common: they are essential parts of how we know and come to understand any part of the world. Perhaps this is even subconscious for most people. Some people will even go so far as to equate geography with anything or event that can be mapped.
Three of the most common types of maps are thematic, topographic, and cadastral. There are many ways to develop typologies of maps, but these three types seem to distinguish both how and why maps are used. Thematic maps are the most common: they show specific topics and their geographic relationships and distributions. Topographic maps show the physical characteristics of land in an area and the built changes in the landscape. Cadastral maps only show how land is divided as property and usually what kinds of built improvements have been made.
Cartogram
City map
Contour map
Dymaxion map
Electronic map
Fantasy map
Geologic map
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Map design
Nautical chart
Pictorial maps
Planform
Plat
Reversed map
Road atlas
Street map
Thematic map
Topographic map
World map
Maps perform two important functions:
Storage medium for information that humanity needs
Provides a picture of the world to help understand spatial patterns, relationships, and environmental complexity
Maps tell us:
Where is it?
What is it?
(often) When is it?
What is nearby? How far away? In which direction? How do I get there?
What other things are there also?
How might they be related?
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Some of the questions one asks himselfWhere am I?
How far to my destination?
In what direction do I go?
How large?
What shape?
Basic characteristics of all maps:
Location - position in two-dimensional space
Attribution - qualities or magnitudes such as language or temperature
Reduction of reality - - obviously cannot map at 1:1, thus
Scale – scale down the map as per the requirements
Geometrical transformation/projection - from round earth to flat map
Abstractions of reality - - only some environmental information can fit on any given map. Information is subject to classification, simplification and perhaps other operations to make it easier to portray and understand
Symbolism - signs stand for elements of reality
Location and Attribution allow many types of relationships to be formed:
Relationships among locations with no attributes –
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distance, bearing
Relationship among various attributes at the same point
Relationship among different locations of the same attribute
Relationships among locations of combined/derived attributes of given distributions -- spatial distribution of per capita income vs. educational attainment
Maps are classified on the basis of relief representation, scale, function and subject matter Classed by relief representation
Hypsometric maps Planimetric maps Classed by Scale
Small scale Medium scale Large scale Classed by Function
General reference maps
Thematic/special purpose maps Charts
Classed by Subject Matter Cadastral maps Plans
Soil, vegetation, precipitation, etc.
TYPES BY RELIEF REPRESENTATION
On the basis of the amount of topographic details given, maps can be classified as:
Hypsometric maps and
Planimetric maps
Hypsometric maps are those which show the relief and terrain in detail and often at the cost of other details. The large scale topographical sheets produced by the Survey of India fall in this category
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As against these, the Planimetric maps give more emphasis to other details and limit the relief portrayal to the inclusion of a few spot heights here and there. Most of thematic maps representing the cultural features of the landscape fall in this category.
Scales of a topographic sheet
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS OR TOPOSHEETS
These are the most common base maps and topography means shape and elevation of the land and is represented by contour lines in a topographic map.
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Planimetric maps
TYPES BY SCALE
Taking the scale as the criteria, maps can be classified as
Small scale maps
Medium scale maps, and
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Large scale maps Scale of a map
The scale of a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.
Representation of scale
Map scales may be expressed in words (a lexical scale), as a ratio, or as a fraction. Examples are:
One centimeter to one hundred meters’ or 1:10,000 or 1/10,000‘
One inch to one mile' or 1:63,360 or 1/63,360
One centimeter to one thousand kiometers’ or 1:100,000,000 or 1/100,000,000.
Large Scale
Larger-scale maps (e.g. 1/25 000) cover small areas in greater detail. A large scale map simply means that ground features are at a larger, more detailed size. The area of ground coverage that is seen on the photo is less than at smaller scales.
Small Scale
Smaller-scale maps (e.g. 1/50 000) cover large areas in less detail. A small scale map simply means that ground features are at a smaller, less detailed size. The area of ground coverage that is seen on the map is greater than at larger scales.
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TYPES BY INFORMATION General purpose maps
Thematic maps and
Special purpose maps
General purpose maps
The multipurpose wall maps, topo-sheets, and many of the atlas maps are classified as General purpose maps
Thematic maps
Maps dealing with a single factor or theme such as Landuse, Geology, Crop types, Population etc., are classified as thematic maps
Special purpose maps
The special purpose maps are those which are constructed for a group of of people having special reading or perceptual issues. Thus the maps for the blind fall in this category
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Examples of thematic mapsTYPES BY MILITARY USE
From a soldier’s point of view, maps can be classified as
General purpose maps
Strategic maps
Tactical maps and
Photomaps
Any map on a scale of 1 : 1,000,000 or more is considered to be a GENERAL MAP. These depict only the broad topographic features which are usually used by the high command for general planning purposes.
Maps having scales ranging from 1 : 1,000,000 to 1 : 500,000 are often classified as STRATEGIC MAPS. These maps are used for the purpose of general planning of more concentrated military effort.
Maps with scales of 1 : 500,000 or less are called TACTICAL MAPS. A tactical serves as a guide to small units like battalions and patrol units prior to during the movement anywhere near the front line. These maps show almost all the relief and planimetry and hence, are used in planning the
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tactics of of smaller combat units. Some scales of 1:250,000 to 1 : 500,000 are classed as STRATEGIC – TACTICAL MAPS.
A photomap is an air photograph with strategic and tactical data superimposed on it. A photomap may constitute just one photograph or it may be a mosaic composed of several of them. The scales of photomaps range from 1 : 5,000 to 1 : 60,000.
BASIC GEODESY
Geodesy is the science that determines the figure of the earth and the interrelation of selected points on its surface by either direct or indirect techniques. Mapping involves determining the geographic locations of features on the earth, transforming these locations into positions on a flat map through the use of map projection, and graphically symbolizing these features.
It is known that the earth is not an round object it is more of a sphere and it is considered as a round object to make measurements on the earth.
The considerations for different types of cartographic map generation
Authalic sphere – a sphere with the same surface area as the ellipsoid – used as base figure for mapping.
WGS 72 and 84 ellipsoids based on satellite orbital data
Clarke 1866 ellipsoid used for mapping in North America (based on ground measurements made in Europe, India, Peru, Russia, South Africa)
Geoid is a more faithful figure of the earth – 3D shape approximated by mean sea level in the oceans and the surface of a series of sea-level canals crisscrossing the continents.
Cartographic use of sphere, ellipsoid, geoid
Authalic sphere used for small scale maps of countries, continents, larger areas
Ellipsoid used for large scale maps such as topographic maps and nautical charts; GPS systems use ellipsoid
Geoid used as reference surface for ground surveyed horizontal and vertical positions;
elevations determined relative to mean sea level geoid.
The important aspects of a map are
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Projections - how geographic locations on the round Earth are shown on a flat map or coordinate system is one of the biggest choices affecting quality
Coordinate systems - related to a projection, a coordinate system is especially pertinent for geographic information, which can easily be combined with other geographic information when it is in the same projection and coordinate system
Symbols - how things and events are communicated is certainly one of the biggest choices affecting quality. For most people using maps, it is the most important, because if people can’t make sense out of the map how can anyone ever judge the quality.
Geographic representation (Design and colour) - deciding how to show things and events is crucial to whether a road can be modeled with different lanes of traffic and sidewalks or only in terms of traffic flow
Cartographic representation - if the geographic representation provides the information, the cartographic representation can support various representations, contingent on a number of parameters, notably scale.
MAP PROJECTION
Commonly, a map projection is a systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations on the surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane.[1] Map projections are necessary for creating maps. All map projections distort the surface in some fashion. Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore, different map projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties. There is no limit to the number of possible map projections.
More generally, the surfaces of planetary bodies can be mapped even if they are too irregular to be modeled well with a sphere or ellipsoid; see below. Even more generally, projections are the subject of several pure mathematical fields, including differential geometry and projective geometry.
However, "map projection" refers specifically to a cartographic projection.
COORDINATE SYSTEM
In geometry, a coordinate system is a system which uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of a point or other geometric element on a manifold such
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as Euclidean space. The order of the coordinates is significant and they are sometimes identified by their position in an ordered tuple and sometimes by a letter, as in "the x-coordinate". The coordinates are taken to be real numbers in elementary mathematics, but may be complex numbers or elements of a more abstract system such as a commutative ring. The use of a coordinate system allows problems in geometry to be translated into problems about numbers and vice versa;
this is the basis of analytic geometry.
Common coordinate systems Number line
The simplest example of a coordinate system is the identification of points on a line with real numbers using the number line. In this system, an arbitrary point O (the origin) is chosen on a given line. The coordinate of a point P is defined as the signed distance from O to P, where the signed distance is the distance taken as positive or negative depending on which side of the line P lies.
Each point is given a unique coordinate and each real number is the coordinate of a unique point.
Cartesian coordinate system
The prototypical example of a coordinate system is the Cartesian coordinate system. In the plane, two perpendicular lines are chosen and the coordinates of a point are taken to be the signed distances to the lines.
In three dimensions, three perpendicular planes are chosen and the three coordinates of a point are the signed distances to each of the planes.[5] This can be generalized to create n-coordinates for any point in n-dimensional Euclidean space.
Depending on the direction and order of the coordinate axis the system may be a right-hand or a left-hand system. This is one of many coordinate systems.
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Polar coordinate system
Another common coordinate system for the plane is the polar coordinate system.[6] A point is chosen as the pole and a ray from this point is taken as the polar axis. For a given angle θ, there is a single line through the pole whose angle with the polar axis is θ (measured counterclockwise from the axis to the line). Then there is a unique point on this line whose signed distance from the origin is r for given number r. For a given pair of coordinates (r, θ) there is a single point, but any point is represented by many pairs of coordinates. For example, (r, θ), (r, θ+2π) and (−r, θ+π) are all polar coordinates for the same point. The pole is represented by (0, θ) for any value of θ.
Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems
There are two common methods for extending the polar coordinate system to three dimensions. In the cylindrical coordinate system, a z-coordinate with the same meaning as in Cartesian coordinates is added to the r and θ polar coordinates giving a triple (ρ, φ, z).[7] Spherical coordinates take this a step further by converting the pair of cylindrical coordinates (r, z) to polar coordinates (ρ, φ) giving a triple (ρ, θ, φ).
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Homogeneous coordinate systemA point in the plane may be represented in homogeneous coordinates by a triple (x, y, z) where x/z and y/z are the Cartesian coordinates of the point.[9] This introduces an "extra" coordinate since only two are needed to specify a point on the plane, but this system is useful in that it represents any point on the projective plane without the use of infinity. In general, a homogeneous coordinate system is one where only the ratios of the coordinates are significant and not the actual values.
Symbology in maps
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Symbology used in thematic mapsGraphic variables for symbols
shape, size, orientation
colour hue, colour value, colour saturation, pattern
and location of course
Geographic representation (Design and colour)
Proper design and colour gives structure and readability and it develops relationship between figure and ground, it is important to provide warm colour better for figures as it is said to ‘advance’ to viewer whereas cool colours tend to recede. Another important aspect is perceptual grouping of like features through colour, or colour contrasts using value or saturation to represent data on thematic maps. The qualitative conventions are - blue for water, green for lush vegetation; red for warm and blue for cool in temperatures and hill shading.
LABELLING
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Cartographic labeling is a form of typography and strongly deals with form, style, weight and size of type on a map. Essentially, labeling denotes the correct way to label features (points, arcs, or polygons).
Form
In type, form describes anything from lengths between letters to the case and color of the font. Form works well for both nominal (qualitative) and ordered (quantitative) data.
Italics describe the sloping of letters setting it apart from non-italicized words (or vice versa). Using italics on a map also slightly decreases the size of the font as it shapely squeezes it around features. When introduced, the idea was to condense the text by italicizing it, thus creating more text on the pages. The slope in the font was created to mimic the flow of cursive handwriting and thus, the angles of italic letters range anywhere from 11 to 30 degree and consequently, serifs are absent. As a general rule on maps, the smaller the point size of a font, the more condensed and difficult it becomes to read. In an example of labeling a globe, ocean features are generally italicized to give an obvious discernment. In cartographic conventions, natural features are adequate in italics such as the aforementioned hydrographic features.
Case is another way of emphasizing—whether it be uppercase, lowercase or a combination of the two (or even different size points within the same case). In general, uppercase fonts denote a higher emphasis, but according to Bringhurst (1996), an uppercase initial of a word has the seniority; but the lowercase letters have the control. In other words, the strong boldness of a larger letter draws the audience into its viewpoint. The lowercase letters contain the information needed to convey further. When viewing text on maps, it is still crucial to grain the audience’s attention as a way of informing them of something other than the map(s). As for design, uppercase is much harder to read than mixed-use. In the globe example, mountain ranges should be in uppercase. When showing a larger scale, such as a region of the United States, it is useful to classify different case sizes. States should be in uppercase, with counties in small uppercase, and cities in lowercase.
Color (value and hue) alterations also allow for a further emphasis on certain features. By changing the color of the font to correspond to the feature it is representing, the two become
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joined. If the cartographer were to label a river, the extra emphasis would be inherent if the font chosen was blue, to correspond with the blue feature (arc). On the contrary though, this is not always necessarily the case. If the cartographer chose a color of font for an ocean feature (polygon), blue would not be the obvious choice because it would appear to be washed out and thus, no emphasis. In this case, it is useful to label the feature with a more rich, bolder color (such as black font on blue polygon).
The spacing of the letters on features also gives a more appealing map-—visually speaking.
By enlarging the increments between each letter of a word, the word in turn, becomes more pronounced. In the case for a long arc feature (river), to add more emphasis on the label, the letters would need to be extended or stretched. On the other hand, in some cases, the letters would have to be condensed (shortened increment gaps) to give a more proportional label for a feature.
STYLE
Serifs The type style affects to overall look of the map and is adequately used to symbolize nominal (qualitative) data within the map. In general, style amounts to the use of serifs versus sans serifs. A serif is, by definition, a cross-line at the end of a stroke along a letter. On a map, the text that is chosen should be consistent. Generally, serif fonts are utilized to give a more regimented block body of text—similar to those used in traditional printing. Serifs are more widely used for historical information or a historical map.
Sans serifs The serif counterpart is sans serifs (meaning without serifs). Sans serif fonts are the more modern of the two fonts. But choosing one over the other requires that the audience will be able to read the text without strain. Generally, sans serifs are not for large bodies of text in print but instead, are ideal for the internet. On the same facet, sans serifs are optimal for a more-clean appearance in such places like a header, title, or legend. In map design, it’s useful to also use sans serifs for natural features.
WEIGHT
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The type weight provides a substantial amount of emphasis of the cartographer’s choosing.
Weight is important because it involves the difference between bold and regular contrast.
The degree of power that is increased with weight, must be proportional to the size of the letter. If not, a letter can be too intense and thus more difficult to read. Similarly, the spacing between the letters must be extended to provide adequate to read smoothly. Bold text creates direct attention to the eyes of the audience to pronounce certain information from cartographer.
SIZE
The type size of fonts stresses the importance and emphasis of the intended map. Size is expressed in points through the American point system with 1 point equaling 1/72" of vertical height. Furthermore, points also show the spacing between letters, words and lines.
A larger size implies more importance or a greater relative quantity; smaller denotes less importance or less quantity. For design purposes, text using a size of less than 6 point is difficult to read. On the contraire, text that is larger than 26 point is too cumbersome for a standard-size paper format. For titles, a font larger than 10 point generally allows for a good working title. Also, it is important to use at least a 2-point difference between type sizes to allow the audience to see subtle changes.
PLACEMENT
With all of the type in order and adequately designed, the final step is the correct placement of labels. Placement describes each feature and its subsequent label(s). For area features, it is important to curve and extend the spaces to properly fill in the areas enough that the audience can discern different areas. As a cartographic convention, labels are usually as horizontal as possible with no upside-down labels. For line features, it is useful to allow the label to conform to the line pattern. Similar to a river (e.g. geographic features), the label should flow around the edges along the line being careful not to have the letters too extended. For point patterns, the minor patterns to follow include keeping labels on/in their respective features (e.g. coastal cities with labels on the land and not ocean). The major pattern for points is the placement along the point itself. The most widely accepted pattern is
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to start at the center and work outward towards the northeast quadrant from the point. Many studies have been researched to address the correct strategy for the placements. The point feature cartographic label placement (PFCLP) problem offers the solutions when point boxes overlap. Many software features automatically choose label placements for the cartographer, but these are not always a fail-safe option. The use of good judgment and cartographic conventions are important to gain the best placement.
Maps versus Globes
Map: a representation of the world or part of it, in two dimensions Globe: a 3-D representation of the entire earth surface.
It is to be remembered that all maps introduce distortion
shape (conformance)
size (equivalence)
Direction
Distance
Maps can be either equivalent or conformal, but cannot emphasize both characteristics.
CONCLUSION
Cartography is both an art and a science
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Maps are fundamental to GIS projects
Modern advances in cartography make it easy to produce good and bad maps
New technology and especially the Internet has changed the content and techniques of GIS- based cartography