Marine Mammal Species of India
E. Vivekanandan R. Jeyabaskaran
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute
(Indian Council of Agricultural Research) Kochi 682 018
www. cmfri.org.in 2012
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Marine Mammal Species of India
Published by:
Dr. G. Syda Rao Director
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) Ernakulam North P.O., P.B. No. 1603 Cochin-682018, Kerala, India
www.cmfri.org.in
Email: director@cmfri.org.in Tel. No.: +91-0484-2394867 Fax No.: +91-0484-2394909
Citation:
Vivekanandan, E. and R. Jeyabaskaran. 2012. Marine mammal species of India, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi, 228p.
Publication Production & Co-ordination
V. Edwin Joseph V. Mohan
ISBN 978-8-923271-5-0
© 2012 Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute
All rights reserved. Material contained in this publication may not be reproduced in any form without the permission of the publisherPrinted at St. Francis Press, Kochi-682 018
Cover photograph:
A pod of spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) sighted off Dwaraka, Gujarat on 23.03.2009
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Foreword
C
entral Marine Fisheries Research Institute has collected and published information on occasional stranding, sightings and gear entanglement of marine mammals for more than 50 years from a vast network of trained field staff located at its research and field centres along the entire Indian coast. More than 85% of the publications on marine mammals in India is by the CMFRI. The Institute has executed a research project on marine mammals during 1981 – 1985 and a long term project funded by Ministry of Earth Sciences, New Delhi during 2003 – 2012.However, several enigmatic facts on marine mammals of India such as species habitat ranges, migration pattern, socializing behaviour and abundance remain to be investigated. Low encounterability at sea, difficulties in handling the stranded / beach-cast animals due to their large body mass and high cost of executing research programmes on marine mammals are few constraints which prevent gaining an insight into these megafauna. Availability of only a very few experts in the country is another major concern in addressing several issues, and hence, it is imperative that the country should produce a large pool of expertise to investigate the marine mammals.
To create interest and awareness among students, researchers, naturalists and conservationists on marine mammals occurring in the Indian seas, the researchers of CMFRI have prepared a species profile, which provides basic and interesting information on these charismatic animals. They have compiled results of CMFRI research projects on marine mammals and available information from a large body of literature so that this publication serves as a source of ready reference to those interested on marine mammals. I compliment the authors Dr. E.
Vivekanandan and Dr. R. Jeyabaskaran for this effort. I sincerely hope that this publication will pave the way for producing a large number of marine mammalogists in the country to undertake advanced research on marine mammals in India and in the region as well.
Kochi – 18
August, 2012 G. Syda Rao
Director
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Acknowledgements
W
e express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. G. Syda Rao, Director, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi for providing facilities and support for publishing this book.We also express special thanks to Dr. M. Rajagopalan for initiating the project on marine mammals and rendering guidance and support throughout the project period. We are grateful to the Director, Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology, Ministry of Earth Sciences for providing funds for the project “Studies on marine mammals of Indian EEZ and contiguous seas”, and to his staff for support.
Dr. K.S.S.M Yousuf, Dr B. Anoop, Mr. V.V. Afsal, Dr A. Anoop, Dr. P. Kannan and Mr. K.S. Abhilash, Senior Research Fellows participated in a number of oceanic cruises, each lasting for several weeks to observe marine mammals. Their interest and untiring field work provided valuable original information on marine mammals in India. The support rendered by all these dedicated researchers is gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks are due to Dr K.S.S.M. Yousuf, who gathered a large volume of literature and also assisted preparation of this manuscript. We also thank Dr. P.P. Manojkumar and Shri K.P. Said Koya, Senior Scientists and Dr. V.
Kripa, Head, FEMD, CMFRI, for their contribution and support. We are thankful to Shri K. Sankaran, Artist (T-5), CMFRI for assistance in preparing the manuscript.
Our special thanks to Shri V. Edwin Joseph, Officer-in-Charge, and Dr.
V. Mohan, Library & Documentation Centre, CMFRI for their excellent support. The help rendered by navigational officers, crew and co- participants of cruises of FORV Sagar Sampada is greatly appreciated.
Cochin 682018 E. Vivekanandan
August 2012 R. Jeyabaskaran
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Foreword
Acknowledgments
Introduction ________________________________________________________________
13Distribution _________________________________________________________________
15SPECIES PROFILE
Order Cetacea
Suborder Mysticeti (Baleen whales) Family Balaenopteridel
1. Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) ____________________________________________ 25 2. Fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) ______________________________________________ 33 3. Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera edeni) _____________________________________________ 39 4. Minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) _______________________________________ 45 5. Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) _____________________________________ 51
Suborder Odontoceti (Toothed whales)
Family Physeteridae
6. Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) __________________________________________ 57 Family Kogiidae
7. Pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps) ___________________________________________ 65 8. Dwarf sperm whale (Kogia sima) ____________________________________________________ 71
Family Delphinidae
9. Killer whale (Orcinus orca) _____________________________________________________ 77 10. False killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens) _________________________________________ 83 11. Pygmy killer whale (Feresa attenuata) ____________________________________________ 89 12. Melon headed whale (Peponocephala electra) ____________________________________ 93 13. Short finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) ____________________________ 97 14. Indo-Pacific beaked whale (Indopacetus pacificus) _______________________________ 103 15. Cuviers beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris) _______________________________________ 107 16. Rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis) ____________________________________ 111 17. Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus) _____________________________________________ 115 18. Pantropical spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris) _______________________________ 121 19. Pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata) _________________________________ 129 20. Striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) _________________________________________ 135 21. Long-beaked common dolphin (Delphinus capensis) _____________________________ 141 22. Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) ______________________________ 149 23. Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin (Sousa chinensis) ______________________________ 157 24. Irrawady dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) _________________________________________ 165
Family Phocaenidae
25. Finless Porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides) __________________________________ 171
Order Sirenia
Family Dugongidae
26. Sea cow Dugong dugon ______________________________________________________ 179
Future Directions ___________________________________________________________
187Glossary ___________________________________________________________________
189References _________________________________________________________________
191Index
___________________________________________________________________________ 221C O N T E N T S
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Fig. I. A male Orcinus orca with triangular dorsal fin sighted in Southern Ocean (52°58'S; 45°04'E) on 21.02.2011
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Introduction
M
arine mammals are important components of marine ecosystems. Due to wide distribution, large body size and predatory nature, these charismatic animals exert major influence on marine food webs and structure and function of marine ecosystems. Marine mammals are highly mobile with complex habitat requirements and are distributed unevenly across oceans ranging from tropical, subtropical, temperate and polar regions. Estuaries, tributaries and contiguous seas of the world’s largest rivers are habitats for few cetaceans and sirenians (dugong). Some regions, such as tropical, subtropical and temperate maintain extremely diverse cetacean species assemblages, whereas polar regions support only a few species.Marine mammals are classified under three major orders, namely, Cetacea (whales, dolphins and porpoises), Sirenia (manatees and dugong) and Carnivora (sea otters, polar bears and pinnipeds). Totally 130 marine mammal species have been recognised in the world oceans (Jefferson et al., 2008). Among the three Orders, Cetacea is the most diverse, having evolved from land-dwelling ancestors around 55 to 60 million years ago and are known to occur in all marine habitats (Reeves et al., 2002). Order Cetacea consists of two suborders namely, Mysticeti (baleen whales) and Odontoceti (toothed cetaceans). Mysticeti represents four families of 14 species, while Odontoceti represents ten families of 73 species (Jefferson et al., 2008).
The Indian seas support a variety of marine mammals, which include baleen whales, toothed whales, dolphins, porpoise and dugong.
Stranding and sighting records show that the Indian seas is a habitat for 25 species of cetaceans and one species of sirenian. Of the 25 species of cetaceans, five are Mysticeti (baleen whales) and the rest are Odontoceti, which includes Delphinidae, Physeteridae, Kogiidae, Ziphiidae, Phocoenidae and Platanistidae (Kumaran, 2002).
The sei whale Balaenoptera borealis, which has been recorded in stranding events by many authors, has been confirmed as misidentification, and hence, is not included in this book. Records on global distribution of B. borealis do not include Indian seas (Rice, 1998; Horwood, 2009).
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All marine mammal species are protected under Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. However, until the year 2003, knowledge on marine mammals of India was restricted to incidental catches of various species in fishing gear. Few authors have recorded morphological characters, osteology, biology and stomach contents of stranded or beach-cast cetaceans. Between 2003 and 2011, the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute undertook research work on marine mammals with financial support from Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India. The results of the project substantially increased the knowledge on marine mammal distribution in the Indian seas. However, an understanding on species distribution range and abundance in Indian seas remains vague. Absence of trained marine mammalogists, dedicated ship surveys and allocation of substantial financial support for marine mammal research has handicapped the progress in research to gain an insight into species level distribution, abundance, biology and ecological characteristics of these diverse animals.
Marine mammal Surveys were also conducted in Southern Ocean to Study the distribution of cetaceans in Antarctic waters (Fig. I & II).
This book is a collective source of information on marine mammal species in the Indian seas.
The book has the following four chapters:
Introduction, Distribution, Species Profile and Future Directions. Under the Chapter Species
Profile, information are provided under the following 10 subtitles: 1. Taxonomic status;
2. Common name; 3. Identification characters;
4. Distribution; 5. Abundance; 6. Habitat;
7. Behaviour; 8. Food; 9. Exploitation and threats;
and 10. Conservation status. Available records on sightings, stranding, incidental catches and food habits of marine mammals have been consolidated and presented in this book.
Information on species occurring in the Indian seas, but published from other habitat ranges in world oceans have also been included to enhance comprehensiveness of this book. The book is intended to create awareness and interest among students and researchers who want to learn about marine mammal species occurring in the Indian seas. Images captured during sighting cruises are given for a few species. Maps given in this book will be useful to infer the occurrence and distribution of species.
To get more information on species described in this book and on other species not occurring in the Indian seas, the readers are encouraged to refer the following fact sheets:
1. Encyclopedia of marine mammals;
2. Marine mammals of the world;
3. Marine mammals of the world FAO species identification guide;
4. The society for marine mammalogy;
5. http://www.marinemammalscience.org.
Fig. II. A pod of Orcinus orca sighted in Southern Ocean (52°58'S; 45°04'E) on 21.02.2011
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The observers participated in 55 cruises. The number of observation days was 1068 and cetaceans were sighted on 430 days. The duration of observation was 7058 hours. A total of 976.7 hours were spent for observation in the Northeastern Arabian Sea, 2525.8 hours in the Southeastern Arabian Sea, 908.0 hours in the Northern Bay of Bengal, 1320.0 hours in the Southern Bay of Bengal, 930.5 hours in the Andaman Sea and 397.0 hours in the Southern Sri Lanka Sea (Indian Ocean). The total number of sightings in all the regions was 626, which comprised of 8674 individuals (Table I). On an average there was one sighting every 11 hours.
The cetaceans were sighted at a distance ranging from 0.05km to 964km from the shore, near water surface where the maximum depth ranged from 15m to 4515m, at sea surface temperature (SST) range from 24.2°C to 32.0°C, salinity from 27.5ppt to 37.6ppt, and sea condition ranging in Beaufort scale from 0 to 7. From the sighting surveys, it was found that the cetaceans are widely distributed in the Indian EEZ and the contiguous seas (Fig. III-VI).
A total of 219 sightings (35%) were within the continental shelf (<200m depth) and the
remaining (65%) were in oceanic waters (>200m depth). Maximum number of sightings was during 1500-1800 hrs, in which 31% of the total sightings were recorded. Only 5% of the sightings were after 1800 hrs, as observation could not be carried beyond 1900 hrs on most of the days due to poor visibility.
In sightings surveys,18 species were recorded (Table1). But species could not be identified on all occasions. In 361 instances i.e. 57.7% of the sightings, identification was made up to generic or species level, either as confirmed or as ‘possible’.
The remaining 265 sightings (42.3%) were recorded as unidentified dolphins (UID)/
unidentified whales (UIW). Of the 18 species identified, 6 were whales and 12 were dolphins.
The six whales include 5 species of baleen whales and one species of toothed whale. Stenella longirostris was the most abundant (1945 individuals) followed by Tursiops aduncus (887).
However, Sousa chinensis was encountered in mazimum number of sightings (57).
Fig. IV. A pod of leaping Stenella longirostris sighted off Dwaraka, Gujarat on 23.03.2009
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Suborder Mysticeti
Baleen whales
Fig. 1a. A spouting Balaenoptera musculus sighted off Mangalore, Karnataka on 16.10.2010
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Balaenoptera musculus
Blue whale
Fig. 1b. Balaenoptera musculus stranded at Kundugal, Mandapam, Tamilnadu on 17.07.2006, showing a clearly visible single prominent median ridge
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Stenella attenuata
Pantropical spotted dolphin
Fig. 19a. A Stenella attenuata sighted off Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh on 31.08.2009, showing the presence of white beak tip and white dorsal spotting in the body
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19.1 Taxonomic status
Phylum: Chordata; Class: Mammalia; Order: Cetacea; Suborder: Odontoceti; Family:
Delphinidae; Genus: Stenella; Species: attenuata 19.2 Common names
Pantropical spotted dolphin; Bridled dolphin; Narrow-snouted dolphin; spotters
Taxonomy of the spotted dolphins was long confused, with specimens of this species classified under various species such as S. attenuata, S. frontalis, S. plagiodon, S. froenatus, S. pernettyi and S.
dubia (Her-shkovitz, 1966). Finally one pantropical species (S. attenuata) was recognized in revision and a second species (S. frontalis) is highly variable geographically in size, tooth size, and colour pattern and endemic to the tropical Atlantic Ocean (Perrin et al., 1987). Both species have similarity in skull, but did not appear as sister taxa in phylogenetic analysis based on cytochrome b mtDNA sequences (LeDuc et al., 1999).
Fig. 19b. Pantropical spotted dolphin Stenella attenuata 19 3. Identification characters
The pantropical spotted dolphins (Fig. 19a&b) like other species of the genus Stenella, are relatively small dolphins growing to a maximum length of 2m and weighing approximately 114kg at adulthood.
Body is generally slender, streamlined and have a long thin beak that is separated from the melon by a distinct crease. The dorsal fin is narrow, falcate, and usually pointed at the tip. Flippers are slender and strongly curved. Colouration of lower sides of adults is grey with dark cape on dorsal side. The lower belly, lips and tip beak tend to be brilliant white. Although unspotted at birth, by adulthood the dolphins have varying degrees of white mottling on the dark dorsal cape. The spotting ranges from very slight in offshore animals to heavy in coastal dolphins. A dark grey band encircles the eye, and continues forward to the apex of the melon. A dark stripe runs from eye to flipper. In each row 34 to 48 slender, sharply pointed teeth are present.
Pantropical spotted dolphin
Stenella attenuata (Gray, 1846) 19
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They feed mainly on small epipelagic and mesopelagic fishes and squids. Some other foods are taken, such as nemertean worms and crab larvae (Sekiguchi et al., 1992). Significant differences in prey composition by season and geographic region indicate that they are flexible in their diet. Female diet preference varies with reproductive state in particular, lactating female feed on a greater proportion of fish than squid, because of higher calorific value (Ross, 2006). The pantropical spotted dolphins feed at night when many mesopelagic species migrate toward the surface. In eastern tropical Pacific, stomach content showed fishes like lanternfish (family Myctophidae) and the most commonly found cephalopods (family Ommastrephidae) (Roberston and Chivers, 1997). The dominance of mesopelagic prey and higher stomach fullness were observed during the morning hours.
19.9 Exploitation and threats
By-catch in fisheries around the world is a major threat. They are often taken in gillnet fisheries in Australia, central North Pacific, coastal Peru and Ecuador, Japan, northern Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka, Solomon Island, Philippines, Taiwan, western North Pacific, and other areas. Association of these dolphins with yellowfin tuna has made them more vulnerable to tuna fishery. In the eastern tropical Pacific, takes of hundreds of thousands has reduced the northern offshore stock to an unknown degree (Wade, 1995). They are subjected to high mortality in other fisheries, including drive fisheries in Japan and harpoon fisheries for human consumption. Incidental catch of these dolphins has been reported in Indian gillnet fisheries (Yousuf et al., 2008). However, this species is taken less often and thus, unlike the spinner dolphins, they are less vulnerable to gillnet fisheries in India.
19.10 Conservation status
The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Protected under Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1971.
IUCN status: Least Concern Indian status: Date Deficient
Fig. 19e. A Stenella attenuata sighted off Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh on 31.08.2009, showing the slender strongly recurved flipper and pointed falcate dorsal fin More pages are omitted from the book preview
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Heteroteuthis dispar). Northeastern Atlantic striped dolphin often feed on fish (lanternfish) but mainly on cephalopods (Teuthowenia megalops and Histioteuthis spp) and crustaceans (Sergestes arcticus and Pasiphaea multidentata). Myctophids fish predominated the prey in the specimen collected from Japan and South Africa. They feed between the water columns from 200m to 700m depth.
20.9 Exploitation and threats
Historically, this species has been targeted in direct and indirect fisheries in Japan, France and Spain. Drive and hand-harpoon fisheries in Japanese waters killed around 3825 striped dolphins during 1981-1993. Striped dolphins are still caught in Japan with allowed quota of 700 animals.
Striped dolphins are also taken in the drive fishery at Malaita in the Solomon Islands and in the harpoon fishery for small cetaceans at St Vincent. Small numbers were taken by French and Spanish fishermen for human consumption in the Mediterranean (Jefferson et al., 1993; Perrin et al., 1994).
Incidental catches are known to occur in gillnets in the north-eastern Indian Ocean, in tuna purse seines in the eastern tropical Pacific, in fisheries in the northeastern Atlantic, in drift nets, purse seines and other gear in the Mediterranean. Between 1990 and 2003 the driftnet fleet targeting swordfish caused estimated bycatch mortality of over 5000 striped dolphins every year in the Alboran Sea and Irish coast (Rogan and Mackey, 2007). Incidental catch of this species in gillnet is occasionally reported in Indian waters. However, compared to spinner dolphin, entanglement of these dolphins is less in Indian seas. Overfishing of potential prey of striped dolphin has eventually become a potential threat to this species (Reyes, 1991). Organochlorine accumulation and noise pollution are also potential threats to this species.
20.10 Conservation status
The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.
IUCN status: Least concern Indian status: Data Deficient
Fig. 20e. Stenella coeruleoalba stranded at Vizhinjam, Kerala on 18.09.2007, clearly showing the white belly and dark grey dorsal cape which is separated by a light grey thorax.
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Delphinus capensis
Long-beaked common dolphin
Fig. 21b. A pod of breaching Delphinus capensis sighted off Kochi, Kerala on 8.09.2009
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Tursiops aduncus
Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin
Fig. 22a. Tursiops aduncus stranded at Vellar Estuary, Parangipettai, Tamilnadu on 26.05.2010
Photo: V. Ravi
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Sousa chinensis
Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin
Fig. 23a. Sousa chinensis sighted off Karwar, Karnataka on 9.03.2010, showing the large dorsal hump, suggesting that it may be an adult male
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Order Sirenia
Family Dugongidae
Fig. 26a. Dugong dugon
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Fig. 26b. Dugong dugon stranded at Neil Island, Andaman on 25.12.2008 and the skin is sprinkled with short hairs
Photo: DoEn&F, Andaman
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Dugong dugon
Sea cow
Fig. 26c. A female Dugong dugon stranded at the seagrass bed of Athirampattinam (feeding ground), Tamilnadu on 5.06.2011
Photo: Siva
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(Prater, 1928; Das and Dey, 1999). Many hundreds of dugong herds were reported to have once occurred in Palk Strait between India and Sri Lanka (Annandale, 1905; Deraniyagala, 1965). However, occurrence of dugongs has become very sparse in all its distribution range in Indian coastal waters.
Dugongs are believed to be completely extinct in the Lakshadweep Islands (Husar, 1975).
Fig. 26e. Villagers lifting the cetacean-like bilobed tail fluke of Dugong dugon stranded at Athirampattinam, Tamilnadu on 5.06.2011
Fig. 26f. A female Dugong dugon stranded at Athirampattinam, Tamilnadu on 5.06.2011 showing the paddle shaped flipper and mammary gland in the flipper pit
Photo: Siva
Photo: Siva
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Index
Aavuli 181
Aerial acrobatics 146
Air-breathing 110
Ambergris 63
Antarctic colossal squid 63
Antarctica 27, 35, 79, 81
Balaenoptera bonaerensis 46
Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda 27
Balaenoptera musculus indica 27
Balaenoptera musculus intermedia 27
Balaenoptera physalus quoyi 34, 35
Bait balls 114
Balaenoptera acutorostrata 17-20, 45-50, 82
Balaenoptera acutorostrata scammoni 46 Balaenoptera acutorostrata thalmaha 46
Balaenoptera blythi 35
Balaenoptera brydei 40
Balaenoptera musculus 17,18,20, 23-32, 191
Balaenoptera physalus 17, 18, 33-35, 191
Balaenoptera physalus quoyi 34, 35
Balaenopteridae 26, 34, 40, 46, 52, 190
Baleen plate 189
Baleen whale 52
Baslnyya magar 166
Beaked whale 103-110, 191
Beaufort scale 16
Black fish 78, 84
Black porpoise 172
Blow hole 40
Blubber 31, 32, 147, 189
Blue whale 25-28, 30-34, 37
Bluefin tuna 82
Bottlenose dolphin 100, 132, 149, 150-152, 156, 163
Breaching 48, 81, 88, 91, 121, 141, 146, 163, 175
Bridled dolphin 130
Bryde's whale
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Bycatch 69, 82, 87, 92, 105, 110-113, 117, 119, 127, 139, 147, 156, 164, 173-175, 187-189
Camouflage 68
Carangids 86, 127, 156
Carlsberg Ridge 105
Cavus 108
Chiroteuthis imperator 63
Circumglobal 73, 79, 123, 126
Climate change 32, 82, 87, 106, 110, 187
Cocconeis ceticola 27
Continental shelf 15, 16, 42, 61, 63, 68, 74, 91, 100, 109, 114, 146, 155, 185, 189, 190
Continental slope 68, 74, 86, 95, 100, 105, 109, 118, 126, 189
Cranchiidae 69
Cuvier's beaked whale 107-109
Cymodocea isoetifolia 186
Cymodocea serrulata 186
Delphinus tropicalis 142, 143
Dall's porpoise 82
Delphinapteridae 166
Delphinapterus molagen 173
Delphinidae 122, 130, 136, 142, 150, 158, 166
Delphinus (Lagenorhynchus) fusiformis 95
Delphinus capensis 22, 23, 141-148
Delphinus delphis 143, 161
Delphinus delphis tropicalis 143
Delphinus godamu 152
Delphinus intermedius 90
Delphinus lentiginosus 160
Delphinus malayanus 131
Delphinus perniger 152
Diatom 26, 27
Dolphinfish 92
Dolphinarium 156
Driftnet 92, 114, 139, 147
Drive fisheries 114, 133, 156
Dugong 13, 180-191
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Dugongidae 177, 180
Dwarf minke whale 46
Dwarf sperm whale 66, 71, 72, 74
Dwarf spinner dolphin 123, 126, 127
Dynamite fishing 127, 164, 186
Echo-locating 58
Eden's whale 40
Elephant Seal 82
Entanglement 32, 64, 92, 101, 127, 139, 164, 176
Euphausia pacifica 48
Euphausia similis 48
Euphausia superba 36
Eutrophication 170
Falcate 90, 98, 103, 108, 116, 117, 122, 130, 133,
136, 142, 150, 189
False gill 66, 72
False killer whale 83-87, 96
Feeding ground 27, 31, 36, 179
Feresa attenuata 89, 90, 91
Finless porpoise 163, 166, 169, 171-175
Fishing gear 14, 32, 37, 43, 49, 63, 69, 92, 101, 125, 132,
161, 162, 164, 176, 188, 189
Flatheads 170
Flipper 15, 46, 62, 72, 84, 118, 122, 127, 130, 133,
136, 142, 172, 180, 181, 189
Flipper slapping 118, 189
Fluke slapping 118, 189
Food web 13
FORV Sagar Sampada 15, 17, 27, 30, 42, 54, 59, 61, 86, 100, 105, 118, 126, 132, 138, 144, 145, 154, 162
Globicephala melas 98
Gelatinous squid 63
Gestation period 31, 43, 48, 54, 101, 127, 169, 175, 185, 189
Giant squid 63
Gillnet 69, 75, 85, 92, 99, 106, 114, 117, 124, 131,
139, 143, 144, 147, 152, 153, 156, 161, 174
Globicephala indica 98
Globicephala macrorhynchus 17, 18, 95-102
Goose-beaked whale 108
Grampus griseus 17, 18, 115-118
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Halodule uninervis 186
Halophila ovalis 186
Harbour porpoise 82
Harbour seal 82
Harp seal 82
Harpooning 92, 127, 186
Herring 37, 43, 48, 55, 82, 86
Histioteuthididae 69
Humpback whale 53, 54, 55, 86, 127
Humpbacked dolphin 157-160, 169
Hyperoodon planifrons 105
Incidental catch 49, 91, 110, 119, 131-133, 137, 139, 143,
156, 164, 176, 189
Indian Ocean bottlenose dolphin 150
Indopacetus pacificus 17, 18, 103-106
Indo-Pacific beaked whale 103, 104
Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin 149, 150, 152 Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin 157, 158, 160
Irrawady dolphin 165-170, 187
J-stock 48
Jumbo squid 63
Killer whale 69, 77-82, 190
Kogia breviceps 65-70, 72
Kogia sima 71-73
Kogia simus 66, 72, 74
Kogiidae 13, 66, 72
Lactarius lactarius 164
Laligo duvaucelli 127
Leaping 16, 19, 118, 147, 190
Little piked whale 46
Lobtailing 81, 100
Long beaked spinner dolphin 122
Long-beaked common dolphin 141-143
Longline fishery 87
Longman's beaked whale 104-106
Lunge feeding 54
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Marine debris 75
Megalaspis cordyla 127
Megaptera novaeangliae 17-19, 51-54
Melon-headed whale 93-95
Mesopelagic fishes 96, 127, 133, 146
Mesoplodon pacificus 104
Migration pattern 3
Migratory species 37
Minke whale 45-48
Monodontidae 166
Morbidity 75, 190
Mysticeti 13, 24, 26, 34, 46, 52
Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaeorientalis 173 Neophocaena phocaenoides phocaenoides 173 Neophocaena phocaenoides sunameri 173
Narrow-snouted dolphin 130
Navy sonar 87, 101
Nemertean worm 133
Neomeris phocoenoides 173
Neophocaena phocaenoides 17, 18, 171-176
Northern hemisphere 12, 34, 35, 37, 46-48, 52, 67, 81, 137
Nyctiphanes australis 55
Orcaella heinsohni 166
Octopus 43, 92, 101, 175
Odontoceti 94, 98, 104, 108, 116, 122, 130, 142, 150,
158, 166, 172
Offshore 42, 48, 82, 86, 100, 114, 126, 130-133, 138,
146, 163, 169, 174, 185
Oil yielding dolphin 170
Ommastrephidae 92, 119, 133
Onychoteuthidae 92, 119
Orcaella brevirostris 165-170, 187
Orcinus orca 12, 14, 17-20, 31, 36, 76-81
Organochlorine 139, 147, 164
Osteology 14, 150
O-stock 47, 48
Over-fishing 87
Ovulation 77
Physeter catodon
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Pantropical spotted dolphin 129-131
Pelagic 43, 55, 64, 81, 101, 109, 114, 119, 123, 138,
147, 170
Penaeus semisulcatus 186
Peponocephala electra 93-95
Phocaena brevirostris 168
Physeter breviceps 66
Physeter macrocephalus 15-19, 56-64, 187
Physeteridae 13, 58, 66
Pigmentation 27, 79, 108
Pinnipeds 13
Platanista gangetica 161, 187
Pod 14-18, 31, 47, 62, 76, 102, 117, 141, 148,
151, 162, 190
Pod size 15, 18, 31, 62
Polar bear 13
Polar region 13, 81, 108, 189, 190
Pollution 32, 43, 75, 139, 156, 170, 176, 187
Pot whale 58
Pseudorca crassidens 83-88
Purse seine 69, 87, 96, 147, 156, 164, 174
Pygmy killer whale 69, 89, 90, 94
Pygmy sperm whale 65-69, 72, 74
Razor-billed Auks 82
Remoras 127
Risso's dolphin 100, 115-117
River otter 82
Rorqual 26, 40, 41, 47, 48
Rough-toothed dolphin 111-113
Stenella longirostris centroamericana 123 Stenella longirostris roseiventris 123, 126
Sousa plumbea 158
Sousa teuszii 158
Saddle back dolphin 142
Saddle patch 78, 79, 98
Sailfish 86
Salinity 15, 16, 23, 31, 62, 81, 100, 118, 126, 155,
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Sciaenids 86
Sea birds 48, 133
Sea cow 179-182
Sea lion 82
Sea otter 13
Sea surface temperature /SST 15, 16, 22, 31, 54, 62, 86, 100, 105, 114, 126, 146, 155
Seagrass 155, 179, 185-188
Seamount 62, 109, 118
Sei whale 13, 37, 40
Seismic exploration 87, 101, 106
Sergestid shrimp 127
Sexual maturity 31, 36, 43, 68, 74, 95, 100, 110, 114, 119,
127, 133, 138, 146, 150, 156, 164, 169, 175
Ship strike 32, 64
Shore seine 119, 176
Short-finned pilot Whale 97-101
Shuttling 164
Sirenia 13, 177, 180, 187
Socializing 3, 163, 164, 189, 190
Solenocera crassicornis 127
Sotalia plumbea 160
Sousa chinensis 16-18, 21-23, 157-164
Sousa lentiginosa 160
Southern hemisphere 34-36, 42-48, 52-55, 67, 99
Spatulate flipper 62
Spear gun 96, 101
Sperm whale 57-67, 69-74, 96, 100, 187
Spermaceti oil 58
Spermaceti organ 58, 66, 72, 190
Spermaceti whale 58
Spotted dolphin 127, 129-131
Spout 3, 26, 29, 189
Spy hopping 48, 81, 91, 118, 169
Squid tactic 68, 74
Squilla 156
Steller sea lion 82
Stenella attenuata 17, 18, 129-134, 146, 161
Stenella coeruleoalba
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Striped dolphin 135-139
Submarine canyon 62, 190
Subtropical 13, 31, 48, 55, 68, 94, 112, 123, 131, 167,
180
Suction feeding 169
Sulphur bottom whale 26, 27
Super-pods 118
Surfing 114
Swordfish 110, 139
Symbiosis 95
Tachysurus sp. 86
Taonius pavo 106, 110
Threadfin bream 170
Trichechus dugon 180
Tropical bottlenose whale 104
Tubercles 172, 176
Tursiops abusalam 152
Tursiops aduncus 16-21, 23, 149-156
Tursiops catalanta 152
Tursiops dawsoni 152
Tursiops fergusoni 160
Tursiops gilli 152
Tursiops truncatus 150, 151
Upwelling 27, 36, 61, 95, 118, 138, 146
Ventral pleat 47, 53, 190
Vertical ridge 112
Vestigial 58, 72, 180
Water spitting 169
Whaling 32, 37, 43, 48, 49, 55, 61, 63, 64, 69, 82, 87,
101, 190
Xenobiotic 82, 114
Yellowfin tuna 86, 96, 114, 127, 132, 133
Ziphiidae 13, 104, 108
Ziphius cavirostris 104, 107-110
Zooplankton 55, 68, 74, 118
