Influence of informal settlements on land use mix and travel behaviour: case study of Delhi

INFLUENCE OF INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS ON LAND USE MIX AND TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR:

CASE STUDY OF DELHI

AMIT SHARMA

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH AND INJURY PREVENTION PROGRAMME,

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DELHI

OCTOBER 2020

©Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD), New Delhi, 2020

INFLUENCE OF INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS ON LAND USE MIX AND TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR:

CASE STUDY OF DELHI

by

AMIT SHARMA

Transportation Research and Injury Prevention Programme,

Submitted

In fulfilment for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DELHI

OCTOBER 2020

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis titled “Influence of informal settlements on land use mix and travel behaviour: Case study of Delhi” being submitted by Amit Sharma to the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India, for the award of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, is a record of original bona fide research work carried out by him. Amit has worked under my guidance and supervision.

To the best of my knowledge, the thesis has reached the requisite standard. The material contained in this thesis has not been submitted, in part or in full to any other university or institute for the award of any degree or diploma.

Dr. Geetam Tiwari Dr. K Ramachandra Rao

Professor Professor

Transportation Research and Transportation Research and

Injury Prevention Programme (TRIPP) Injury Prevention Programme (TRIPP)

& Department of Civil Engineering & Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I feel humbled and will forever remain indebted to Prof Tiwari for her kind decision to accept me as her disciple. I am grateful for her irreplaceable guidance to see me through the conceptual dilemmas encountered while working on such a complex and interdisciplinary topic. More so for essentially providing me with numerous opportunities to interact and learn from scholarly people from multiple disciplines. I am grateful to Prof Rao for being a torch bearer in my journey through the unknown. His ability to point out, in most subtle manner, the errors in my judgment and suggestions to look for alternate empirical approaches that might help in making my point finally proved to be invaluable. I can only hope that I am able to stand firm for the principles that my supervisors have tried to instill in their student.

My venture into this research presented me with opportunities for profound experiences of learning both academic as well as life in general. I have had many wonderful companions on this path, amongst my seniors Shri Mukund Sinha, Shri Ajit Sinha and Shri Saibaba Darbamulla have helped me at various junctures and moments of being stuck somewhere. There’s so much one can learn by merely interacting with people of such caliber, who are admired by one and all in their respective fields.

If I was able to see a little farther, it was because I was standing on the shoulders of Col Sarma. He has always treated me as his younger brother and comrade. I know he would gladly see me fall where he knows I need to learn to stand up for myself. And would certainly help me where he thinks I am committing a suicidal mistake. He’s been a

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guiding light ever since I commenced on this journey of so called ‘independent research’. If I ever become a true gentleman, he’ll always be a reference point.

I must now talk about Sameer Sharma, my ‘Off the Road’ companion not just in travel but in tackling with whatever life throws at me. I wish to mention both how far we have travelled and how far we have come. He’s the ‘elder brother’ I never had, and a synonym of ‘good times’ during my stay at IIT. If it were not for him, I wouldn’t be able to boast of ‘been there done that’ individually. He’s the person who added the prefix or rather identified ‘Humble’ with ‘Haryanvi’. My heartfelt thanks to him for shaping my outlook with the exposures he has brought to my life.

Rahul reminds me of a poem from my childhood titled ‘To reach the unreachable star’.

His constant, consistent and diligent pursuit for academic excellence would always be a force to reckon with in our field, that I am sure of. I am subconsciously aware that this endeavor has taken him through the metaphysical realm to return him as a learned fellow. I am content that we had the same ‘Gurus’ and so there is still hope. Sneha is too kind to trifle with me. I am usually startled by her revelations to show me other half of the perspective in real life situations that elude me still. She has contributed immensely to my interpersonal skills. If only, I had half the efficiency she possesses

‘to work then and there’, I would conveniently meet the deadlines. Her atypical version of ‘science of Holmesian deduction’ seems to work, but l am not sure whether I can ride the same horse.

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Friends form an inalienable and sometimes the only source of reprieve from the trying times and stress that you must endure during the course of research work. However brief my interactions with Ravi and Srividya have been, they have had a lasting impression.

On the other hand, Vivek and Parul would always be remembered for the informal times I spent with them. Hari and Laxmi would always be remembered for their sincerity.

Anusha and Bismy made things a little easy for me by working overtime on preparation of GIS database, being involved in different research work related to various projects. I have been blessed with friends that others might feel envy of. Forgive me if you don’t find mention here as it is limited to contribution to my PhD duration and in no way belittles your efforts for my wellbeing. I would certainly not have a leg to stand on if I don’t recall Ajit, Akhtar, Akhil, Karan, Vikas, Hem, Chetan & Sandeep.

Words lose their utility when it comes to recounting the contribution and sacrifices your family has made for you. More so, if you have a sister, who even though being more capable, has been deprived of the opportunities she deserved. Only I know what I would have given to see her get the same opportunities that I have been presented with.

I wish I could skip referring to you, but you made me realize that it’s only intuitively through the mysterious equations of life, that one can seek his calling. You must know that it is only because of you that I am here and have used up to my last ounce of competence to go against my better judgment and challenges of the circumstances, only to hope that the reader is able to go beyond the abstract.

Amit Sharma

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ABSTRACT

Land use and built up characteristics of any settlement have significant impact on daily commute and travel patterns of its inhabitants. Local built environment directly relates to the choice of activities that can be performed within the range of walking distance and non-motorized transport. Inversely, it also influences what activities would require the use of motorized transport. Land use mix and travel behaviour relationship has been studied extensively in European and American context. However, this has been very limited in India due to unavailability of land use data. Though extensive literature is available on predicting impacts of built environment on travel behaviour, the peculiarity and presence of informal settlements adds to its complexity.

Informal settlements in urban areas have been named as slums, JJ clusters, Barrios or favelas based on specific region and countries. However, all of them have many similarities. Regardless of which nomenclature is adopted, these settlements bring unique challenges to their dwellers. Extreme poverty, insecurity of tenure, absence of infrastructure and constrained mobility and access are the common traits of these the residents. These settlements are, to large extent, physical and spatial manifestations of urban poverty and represent an unresolved challenge for the land use policy. Residents of these informal settlements are mostly the immigrants who come to the city in search of employment. Shortage or absence of affordable housing options force the city migrants to build shelters by occupying public land. Mostly, these would be close to the employment opportunities built by encroaching on public land.

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Most cities in India include a congested core area, which is characterized by narrow streets, commercial, and trade activities and largely unregulated land use mix. By and large, Indian cities have a mixed and heterogeneous land use structure. Also, slums and squatter settlements can be found within the city limits and beyond. Identifying

‘Informal’ land use gives us an opportunity to study the interaction and differences between travel patterns of the inhabitants of ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ settlements. An inventory of different resources and datasets is first compiled to be able to quantify the informal settlements in terms of ‘informal’ land use. These included Census (2011), Data on informal settlements from Delhi Urban Shelter Improvement Board, and the Satellite imagery available from different open sources like Google and Open Street Maps. Land use proportions were calculated for seven categories of land uses including

‘informal’.

At city level,

Study further utilizes household interview survey data comprising 24-hour travel diary of each member of the household in a representative sample drawn from population both from formal and informal settlements.

Existing indicators were explored for their applicability when multiple categories of land uses are involved. Further, three of these indicators namely, Herfindahl index, Entropy index and Dissimilarity index were calculated with and without including

‘informal’ land use to assess their utility in capturing the presence of informal settlements. In the case of the ‘Informal’ land use the geographical footprint usually remains small and scattered. Further, geographical footprint as included in the analysis

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resulted in under-representation of the informal settlements and therefore an alternate approach was required while studying the ‘informal’ land use. An alternate approach for studying the land use mix using Voronoi diagram was employed. This resulted in the modification of land use entropy formulation and was validated with dataset available for Delhi. Voronoi diagram-based entropy formulation is found to be more effective in capturing the presence of informal settlements in terms of land use mix.

The study further looks into the difference between travel characteristics and travel behaviour of the inhabitants of the ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ settlements. At aggregate level a non-motorized trips production model is explored first followed by the mode choice models for both informal and formal settlements. No. of NMT trips increases with the increase mix as represented by weighted Voronoi mix, population density as well as road network density. Dwellers of informal settlements are found to be primarily making shorter trips using more active modes of transport which is mainly due to unaffordability of other motorized modes and even public transport. This is also the reason they have to encroach on public land to be able to commute to their place of work daily as a ‘captive’ user of active modes. Mode choice models indicate that increasing land use mix is found to be associated with increase in tendency to use active modes of transport and public transit and has far reaching implications for sustainable land use and transport planning. Policies should be directed at Increasing land use mix in order to encourage use of walk and public transit as a preferred mode of choice. The study thus brings out the policy implication of mixed land use planning and presence of informal settlements on travel patterns in a city.

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सार

किसीभीबस्तीिीभूमििेउपयोगऔरनिमिितविशेषताओंिाउसिेनििामसयोंिेदैनििआिागिि

औरयात्रापैटििपरिहत्िपूर्िप्रभािपड़ता है। स्थािीय निमिित पररिेश सीधे उि गनतविधधयों िे

वििल्प से संबंधधत है जो पैदल दूरी और गैर-िोटर चामलत पररिहि िी सीिा िे भीतर किए जा सिते हैं। इसिे विपरीत, यह भी प्रभावित िरता है कि िोटर चामलत पररिहि िे उपयोग

िे मलए किि गनतविधधयों िी आिश्यिता होगी। यूरोपीय और अिेररिी संदभि िें भूमि उपयोग मिश्रर् और यात्रा व्यिहार संबंध िा बड़े पैिािे पर अध्ययि किया गया है। हालााँकि, भारत िें

भूमि उपयोग िे आंिड़ों िी अिुपलब्धता िे िारर् यह बहुत सीमित है। यद्यवप यात्रा व्यिहार पर निमिित पररिेश िे प्रभािों िी भविष्यिार्ी िरिे पर विस्तृत साहहत्य उपलब्ध है, अिौपचाररि बस्स्तयों िी खामसयत और उपस्स्थनत इसिी जहटलता िो बढाती है।

शहरी क्षेत्रों िें अिौपचाररि बस्स्तयों िो विशेष क्षेत्र और देशों िे आधार पर िमलि बस्स्तयों,

झुग्गी झोपडी सिूह, बाररयोस या फािेला िे रूप िें िामित किया गया है। हालांकि, उि सभी

िें िई सिािताएं हैं। बािजूद इसिे कि किस िाििरर् िो अपिाया जाता है, ये बस्स्तयां

अपिे नििामसयों िे मलए अद्वितीय चुिौनतयां लेिर आती हैं। अत्यधधि गरीबी, िायििाल िी

असुरक्षा, बुनियादी ढााँचे िा अभाि और वििश गनतशीलता और पहुाँच इि नििामसयों िी सािान्य

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चुिौती हैं। ये बस्स्तयााँ शहरी गरीबी िी िाफी हद ति, भौनति और स्थानिि अमभव्यस्ततयााँ

हैं और भूमि उपयोग िीनत िे मलए एि अिसुलझी चुिौती दशािती िरती हैं। इि अिौपचाररि

बस्स्तयों िे नििासी ज्यादातर अप्रिासी हैं जो रोजगार िी तलाश िें शहर आते हैं। किफायती

आिास वििल्पों िी ििी या अिुपस्स्थनत शहर िे प्रिामसयों िो साििजनिि भूमि पर िब्जा

िरिे आश्रयों िा नििािर् िरिे िे मलए िजबूर िरती है। अधधितर, ये साििजनिि भूमि पर अनतक्रिर् िरिे बिाए गए रोजगार िे अिसरों िे िरीब होंगे।

भारतिेअधधिांशशहरोंिेंएिभीड़भाड़िालािोरक्षेत्रशामिलहै, जोसंिीर्िसड़िों, िाणर्स्ज्यिऔर

व्यापारगनतविधधयोंऔरबड़ेपैिािेपरअनियमितभूमिउपयोगमिश्रर्िाउदाहरर्है। बड़े भारतीय शहरों िें मिधश्रत और विषि भूमि उपयोग संरचिा है। इसिे अलािा, िमलि बस्स्तयों और स्तिैटर बस्स्तयों िो शहर िी सीिा िे भीतर और उससे बाहर भी पाया जा सिता है।

‘अिौपचाररि’ भूमि उपयोग िी पहचाि िरिे से हिें‘औपचाररि’ और ‘अिौपचाररि’ बस्स्तयों

िे नििामसयों िे यात्रा पैटिि िे बीच संबंध और अंतर िा अध्ययि िरिे िा अिसर मिलता

है। विमभन्ि संसाधिों और डेटासेट िी एि सूची िो पहले ’अिौपचाररि / भूमि उपयोग िे

िािले िें अिौपचाररि बस्स्तयों िो निधािररत िरिे िें सक्षि होिे िे मलए संिमलत किया गया

है। इििें जिगर्िा (2011), हदल्ली शहरी आश्रय सुधार बोडि से अिौपचाररि बस्स्तयों िा डेटा

और गूगल और ओपि स्रीट िैप्स जैसे विमभन्ि खुले स्रोतों से उपलब्ध सैटेलाइट इिेजरी

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शामिल हैं। भूमि उपयोग अिुपात िी गर्िा 'अिौपचाररि' सहहत भूमि उपयोग िी सात श्रेणर्यों िे मलए िी गई थी। शहर िे स्तर पर, वििमसत भूमि िे अिुपात िे संदभि िें

'अिौपचाररि' भूमि िा उपयोग लगभग 3.4% िािा जाता है और इस िें 20 लाख से अधधि

लोग सिायोस्जत है। अध्ययि आगे औपचाररि और अिौपचाररि दोिों बस्स्तयों से आबादी से

तैयार प्रनतनिधध ििूिे िें घर िे प्रत्येि सदस्य िी 24 घंटे िी यात्रा डायरी सहहत घरेलू

साक्षात्िार सिेक्षर् डेटा िा उपयोग िरता है।

भूमि उपयोग मिश्रर् िे िौजूदा संिेतिों िो उििी प्रयोज्यता िे मलए खोजा गया था जब भूमि

उपयोगिीिईश्रेणर्यां शामिलहोतीहैं। इसिेअलािा, इिसंिेतिों िेंसेतीि, हेरकफंडाह्ल इंडेतस, एन्रॉपीइंडेतस औरडडमसमिलररटी इंडेतसिी गर्िाअिौपचाररिबस्स्तयोंिीउपस्स्थनत पर िब्जा

िरिेिें उििीउपयोधगतािा आिलििरिेिे मलएअिौपचाररिभूमिउपयोग िेसाथऔर उसिे

बबिािीगईथी। अिौपचाररि भूमि उपयोग िे िािले िें भौगोमलि पदधचह्ि आितौर पर छोटे

और बबखरे हुए रहते हैं। इसिे अलािा, विश्लेषर् िें शामिल भौगोमलि पदधचह्ि अिौपचाररि

बस्स्तयों िे अंडर-प्रनतनिधधत्ि िे पररर्ािस्िरूप थे और इसमलए अिौपचाररि भूमि उपयोग िा

अध्ययि िरते सिय एि िैिस्ल्पि दृस्ष्टिोर् िी आिश्यिता थी। िोरोिोई आरेख िा उपयोग

िरिे भूमि उपयोग मिश्रर् िा अध्ययि िरिे िे मलए एि िैिस्ल्पि दृस्ष्टिोर् िो नियोस्जत किया गया था। इसिे पररर्ािस्िरूप लैंड यूज़ एंरॉपी फॉिूिलेशि िें संशोधि किया गया और

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हदल्ली िे मलए उपलब्ध डेटासेट िे साथ िान्य किया गया। िोरोिोई आरेख आधाररत एन्रापी

सूत्रीिरर् भूमि िे मिश्रर् िे िािले िें अिौपचाररि बस्स्तयों िी उपस्स्थनत पर िब्जा िरिे

िें अधधि प्रभािी पाया जाता है। यह अध्ययि ‘औपचाररि’ और ‘अिौपचाररि’बस्स्तयों िे

नििामसयों िी यात्रा विशेषताओं और यात्रा व्यिहार िे बीच अंतर िो देखता है। िुल स्तर पर एि गैर-िोटर चामलत यात्रा उत्पादि िॉडल िो पहले अिौपचाररि और औपचाररि बस्स्तयों

दोिों िे मलए िोड पसंद िॉडल द्िारा खोजा जाता है। िुल स्तर पर एि गैर-िोटर चामलत यात्रा उत्पादि िॉडल िो पहले अिौपचाररि और औपचाररि बस्स्तयों दोिों िे मलए िोड पसंद

िॉडल द्िारा खोजा जाता है। एिएिटी यात्राओं िी संख्या िें िृद्धध िे साथ िृद्धध होती है, भाररत िोरोिोई मिश्रर्, जिसंख्या घित्ि िे साथ-साथ सड़ि िेटििि घित्ि िे रूप िें।

एिएिटी यात्राओं िी संख्या िें िृद्धध िे साथ िृद्धध होती है, भाररत िोरोिोई मिश्रर्, जिसंख्या

घित्ि िे साथ-साथ सड़ि िेटििि घित्ि िे रूप िें।अिौपचाररि बस्स्तयों िे नििामसयों िो

िुख्य रूप से पररिहि िे अधधि सकक्रय साधिों िा उपयोग िरते हुए छोटी यात्राएं िरते पाया

जाता है जो िुख्य रूप से अन्य िोटर चामलत िोडों और यहां ति कि साििजनिि पररिहि िी

अप्रभािीता िे िारर् होता है। यह भी िारर् है कि उन्हें साििजनिि भूमि पर अनतक्रिर् िरिा

पड़ता है जो सकक्रय िोड िे ‘िैस्प्टि’उपयोगिताि िे रूप िें दैनिि रूप से अपिे िाि िे

स्थाि पर आिे िें सक्षि होते हैं। िोड चयि िॉडल इंधगत िरते हैं कि भूमि उपयोग मिश्रर्

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साििजनिि पररिहि और पारगिि िे सकक्रय साधिों िा उपयोग िरिे िी प्रिृवि िें िृद्धध िें

िदद िरता है और इसिा भूमि उपयोग और पररिहि योजिा िे मलए निहहताथों ति पहुंच है। यात्रा िे पसंदीदा िोड िे रूप िें गैर िोटर चामलत और साििजनिि पारगिि िे उपयोग

िो प्रोत्साहहत िरिे िे मलए भूमि उपयोग मिश्रर् िें िृद्धध िो निदेमशत किया जािा चाहहए।

इस प्रिार अध्ययि एि शहर िें यात्रा पैटिि पर मिधश्रत भूमि उपयोग योजिा और अिौपचाररि

बस्स्तयों िी उपस्स्थनत िे िीनतगत निहहताथि िो साििे लाता है।

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CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE ... I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... II ABSTRACT ... V LIST OF FIGURES ... XVII LIST OF TABLES ... XVIII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... XIX

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION... 1

1.1 Introduction ... 1

1.2 Background ... 1

1.3 Genesis of informal settlements in urban context ... 4

1.4 Land use and transport interaction ... 6

1.5 Built environment and the land use ... 8

1.5.1 The ‘Formal’ land use ... 8

1.5.2 The ‘Informal’ land use ... 9

1.6 The land use mix ... 9

1.7 Urbanization, land use and transport in India ... 10

1.7.1 Urban planning in India... 13

1.7.2 Land use and transport scenario in India ... 15

1.7.3 Identifying informal settlements as distinct land use category ... 17

1.8 Research questions ... 20

1.9 Aim and objectives... 21

1.10 Scope of Work ... 21

1.11 Study area ... 23

1.12 Organization of thesis ... 24

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CHAPTER 2: INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS, LAND USE MIX AND TRAVEL

BEHAVIOUR: A LITERATURE REVIEW... 26

2.1 Introduction ... 26

2.2 Travel behaviour of informal settlements ... 26

2.2.1 Lack of access to affordable transport and resulting social-exclusion ... 27

2.2.2 Employment choices, relocation and resulting travel pattern ... 29

2.2.3 Gender related issues and access to employment... 31

2.3 Land use mix and travel behaviour ... 34

2.4 Land use and transport interaction models ... 47

2.4.1 LUTI models ... 47

2.4.2 Chronology of LUTI modelling framework development ... 49

2.4.3 Primary limitations of the LUTI models ... 52

2.5 Discrete choice based analysis of travel behaviour... 53

2.6 Summary ... 55

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ... 58

3.1 Methodology ... 59

3.2 Compilation of land use dataset ... 61

3.2.1 Mixed use and informal settlements... 61

3.2.2 Preparation of land use dataset on GIS platform... 63

3.3 Methodology for conducting HH surveys in Delhi ... 65

3.3.1 Households travel diary datasets ... 65

3.3.2 Sample size estimation ... 67

3.3.3 Formal settlements ... 69

3.3.4 Informal Settlements ... 73

3.4 Summary ... 76

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF THE SUDY AREA AND TRAVEL CHARACTERISTICS ... 78

4.1 Introduction ... 78

4.2 Urbanization and growth of slum population in Delhi ... 78

4.3 Residential settlements in Delhi ... 80

4.3.1 Overview ... 80

4.4 Existing land use and spatial distribution in Delhi ... 84

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4.5 Revealed travel characteristics of formal and informal settlements ... 85

4.6 Summary ... 91

CHAPTER 5: FORMULATING AN INCLUSIVE INDICATOR OF LAND USE MIX: VORONOI DIAGRAM APPROACH ... 92

5.1 Introduction ... 92

5.2 Existing Indicators for land use mix and limitations ... 93

5.2.1 Existing Indicators... 93

5.2.2 Land use entropy ... 95

5.2.3 Herfindahl - Hischman index ... 97

5.2.4 Land use dissimilarity index ... 98

5.3 Dataset and empirical analysis ... 99

5.4 Voronoi diagram approach for estimating the land use mix ... 104

5.5 ArcGIS procedure for estimating Voronoi diagram ... 108

5.6 Strengths and limitations of the of the mix indicators in capturing ‘informal’ land use 109 5.6.1 Strengths ... 109

5.6.2 Limitations ... 110

5.7 Summary ... 112

CHAPTER 6: TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS ... 113

6.1 Introduction ... 113

6.2 Land use mix dataset ... 113

6.3 Aggregate NMT trips production model ... 115

6.3.1 Policy implications ... 116

6.4 Multinomial logit (MNL) models ... 118

6.5 Formal settlements- Primary tour mode choice model ... 119

6.5.1 Choice set for the model... 120

6.5.2 Variable set for the model ... 120

6.5.3 Policy implications ... 123

6.6 Informal settlements- Primary tour mode choice model ... 125

6.6.1 Data set for the model ... 125

6.6.2 Choice set for the model... 125

6.6.3 Variable set for the model ... 126

6.6.4 Policy implications ... 129

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6.7 Validation of the models... 130

6.8 Summary ... 132

CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ... 135

7.1 Introduction ... 135

7.2 Conclusions and discussion ... 135

7.2.1 Land use mix and spatial distribution including informal settlements in Delhi. 136 7.2.2 Influence of the informal settlements on existing land use mix indicators. ... 138

7.2.3 An inclusive indicator to capture informal settlements in the mixed use. ... 139

7.2.4 Travel behaviour of the inhabitants of formal and informal settlements. ... 140

7.3 Research contribution ... 143

7.3.1 In data collection and enrichment ... 143

7.3.2 Estimation of land use mix ... 144

7.3.3 Inclusive travel behaviour analysis ... 144

7.4 Future scope of work ... 145

REFERENCES ... 149

ANNEXURE-I ... 166

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ... 172

BIO DATA OF THE AUTHOR ... 173

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Land use and transport system interaction (Wegener & Fürst, 2004). ... 7

Figure 1.2: Growth of urban and rural population in India ... 12

Figure 2.1: LUTI models and their evolution (Golias et al., 2016) ... 48

Figure 3.1: Methodology ... 60

Figure 3.2: Usage of households within slums ... 62

Figure 3.3: (a)Existing land use map (b) land use mix (entropy) in Delhi (2014) ... 64

Figure 3.4: (a) Wards in Delhi (b) Built up area (c) Population grids (Density) ... 70

Figure 3.5: Survey locations for formal and informal settlements ... 74

Figure 4.1: (a) Urban and (b) Slum population distribution in Delhi (Census, 2011) ... 80

Figure 4.2: Existing land use distribution in Delhi for the year 2014 ... 85

Figure 4.3: Vehicle ownership in (a) formal and (b) informal settlements ... 86

Figure 4.4: Modal share observed in (a) Formal and (b) Informal settlements ... 87

Figure 4.5: Trip length distribution for (a) formal and (B) informal settlements ... 88

Figure 4.6: Mode-wise trip lengths for (a) formal and (b) informal settlements ... 88

Figure 4.7: Purpose or activity related to travel in (a) formal (b) informal settlements ... 89

Figure 4.8: Gender based activity participation (a) formal and (b) informal settlements ... 90

Figure 5.1: Frequency distribution of zonal entropy values ... 96

Figure 5.2: Frequency distribution of zonal Herfindahl Index values. ... 97

Figure 5.3: Frequency distribution of zonal Dissimilarity Index values. ... 99

Figure 5.4: Thematic (a) Ordinary (b) Weighted Voronoi diagrams ... 105

Figure 5.5: Diagram showing Voronoi regions for different land use parcels ... 106

Figure 6.7: Equivalence mapping of R² and Mcfadden pseudo-R² (Hensher et al., 2005) ... 130

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Strengths and limitations of discrete choice and simulation based models ... 54

Table 3.1 Summary of the travel diary dataset ... 66

Table 3.2 Formal households characteristics ... 72

Table 3.3 One-sample t-test statistics for variable household size of sample ... 75

Table 3.4 One-sample t-test output of results for comparing sample households sizes of the two studies ... 76

Table 4.1 Settlement categories in Delhi (Bhan, 2013) ... 81

Table 5.1 Measures of land use mix (adapted from Song et. al 2013) ... 94

Table 5.2 Descriptive statistics for Entropy, Herfindahl and Dissimilarity indices ... 101

Table 5.3 Paired samples t-test ... 102

Table 5.4 One-way repeated measures ANOVA results (Wilks’ Lambda) ... 103

Table 5.5 Descriptive statistics for Voronoi entropy index ... 107

Table 5.6 Voronoi index paired samples t-test ... 107

Table 6.1 : Land use mix indicators ... 114

Table 6.2 Pearson correlation among the land use mix indicators ... 114

Table 6.3 : Parameter estimates for the model ... 115

Table 6.4 Variable set for the model ... 121

Table 6.5 Goodness of fit indicators obtained from NLOGIT ... 122

Table 6.6 : Parameter estimates obtained from the MNL model ... 122

Table 6.7 Variable set for the model ... 127

Table 6.8 Goodness of fit indicators obtained from NLOGIT ... 127

Table 6.9 : Parameter estimates obtained from the MNL model ... 128

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BMRDA

Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority

Delhi Development Authority

DUSIB

Delhi Urban Shelter Improvement Board

Census Enumeration Blocks

GIS

Geographic Information System

Institute of transportation engineers

Jhuggi-Jhompri clusters

LUMIX

Land use mix

LUTI

Land use and Transport Interaction

Motorized two-wheeler

MoUD

Ministry of Urban Development

Mixed use developments

NMT

Non-motorized transport

NUTP

National Urban Transport Policy

Open Street Maps

UN-HABITAT

United Nations Human Settlements Programme

Vehicle miles/kilometers travelled

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SDGs

Sustainable Development Goals

Millennium Development Goals

Municipal Corporation of Delhi

Delhi Cantonment Board