Social Work Research Unit – I
Meaning of Science
The word science is derived from the Latin word ‘scienta’ which means ‘to know’. Throughout history, people have been very keen to acquire knowledge by using various methods. However, it was felt necessary to evolve a method by which individual thinking has no effect on the conclusions. In other words, the method should be such that the ultimate conclusion of every man is the same. Endeavours to acquire knowledge, which involved such methods, came to be known as science.
The term ‘science’ has been defined in different ways. To some, science means an objective investigation of empirical phenomena, to others science denotes an accumulation of systematic knowledge; to still others, it means all knowledge collected by means of the scientific methodology.
Nevertheless, whatever may be the way of defining, science is united by its methodology. Hence it would be easier to understand science if we first consider science as a method of approach, and then discuss its aims and functions.
What Is Research ?
When we observe certain objects or phenomena, often unaware of our biases, we do not question them and so we attribute our observations entirely to the objects or phenomena being observed. In this process, it is possible to arrive at right decision on the basis of wrong reasons or vice versa. This
questions the process of observation. Was the observation error free? Every method of knowing has certain limitations. While observing are we aware of our limitations? Any study to create new knowledge or aims to increase existing fund of knowledge may it be through observation or by some other methods, is called research if it takes into account the biases, the errors and limitations. As such, research may be described as systematic and critical investigation of phenomena toward increasing the stream of knowledge.
Scientific Research
Science aims at description, explanation and understanding of various objects or phenomena in nature and research are special endeavours, which involves systematic and critical investigation. Thus,
towards increasing the stream of knowledge now it is easier to define scientific research. We may define scientific research as a systematic and critical investigation about the natural phenomena to describe, explain and finally to understand the relations among them
Scientific Method
It is obvious that it would be impossible to comprehend the nature and content of research without an appreciation of a method. The method used in scientific research is usually designated as scientific method. According to George Lundberg (1946), scientific method consists of three basic steps, systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data. Through these steps, scientific method brings about not only verifiability of the facts, but also it lays the confidence in the validity of conclusions.
The definition requires some more explanations. First when Lundberg (1946) says that scientific method is systematic observation, he means in effect, the scientific investigation is not ordered, it aims only at discovering facts as they actually are and not as they are desired to be and as such the investigators can have critical confidence in their conclusions. Second, the scientific method is concerned with classes of objects’ not ‘individual objects’. Universality and predictability are other features of scientific method.
The method makes it possible to predict about a phenomenon with sufficient accuracy.
Use of Scientific Method in Social Work
Social work primarily deals with human behaviour, which is, by and large, complex and dynamic in nature. One cannot, therefore investigate under guided conditions as in natural and physical sciences.
This creates many problems to the researcher such as the problems of subjectivity and individualistic generalizations etc. The problem arising out of the nature and content of social work do not seriously diminish the importance of scientific method for social workers. Not withstanding the inherent
limitations scientific method can be used for the study of problems related with social work so far as it helps to arrive at valid generalisations.
Meaning of Social Work Research
In a very broad sense, social work research is the application of research methods to solve problems that social workers confront in the practice of social work. It provides information that can be taken into consideration by social workers prior to making decisions, that affect their clients, programmes or agencies such as use of alternative intervention techniques or change or modification of programme/
client/objectives and so forth.
Following are some of the situations which call for application of social work research methods and techniques:
1. A social caseworker is interested in assessing the nature and extent of the problem of her client who has been facing marital maladjustment. She may be interested in obtaining information about the actual or potential effectiveness of the client. She may also be keen to know to what extent the intervention would be effective.
2. A group worker wishes to assess the extent to which the technique of role play is more or less effective than group discussion in increasing knowledge of drug abuse among school going children.
3. A community organiser wants to know the views of the community before he takes a decision to change the programme/objectives.
4. A director of special school for mentally retarded children wants to know whether group therapy is as effective as individual therapy in increasing adaptability of mentally retarded children.
5. A social work administrator is concerned about effectiveness of implementation of new programme launched.
Social Work Research: Definition
Social work research may be defined as systematic investigation into the problems in the field of social work. The study of concepts, principles, theories underlying social work methods and skills are the major areas of social work research. It involves the study of the relationship of social workers with their clients; individuals, groups or communities on various levels of interaction or therapy as well as their natural relationships and functioning within the organisational structure of social agencies.
Social Work Research: The Process
It must be borne in mind that the process of social work research is not completely identical to social research. In fact, there are many similarities between this process and the traditional research process.
The process however, has some additional steps designed to suit the objectives of social work research.
By following the process social work researchers are in a position to know precisely what intervention was applied and how much effect was produced. The process also links research and practice. Social work research starts with problem identification and setting up of goals. This is followed by the process of assessment (or need assessment) of the client’s problems. During these initial stages, the researcher strives to obtain a clear and specific
understanding of the problem, using assessment tools such as interviewing (Monette, et. al., 1986).
After the problem is identified and needs are assessed, the next step is to set up goals to be achieved.
The goals are required to be specific, precisely defined and measurable in some way. The third step in the process is to have a pre-intervention measurement, that is, measurement prior to intervention; the preintervention measurement is used as basis from which to compare the client’s condition after the intervention is introduced. Next stage in the process is to introduce intervention. It is important here to note that only a single, coherent intervention be applied during any intervention phase. In the last stage, we assess the effects of intervention by comparing the two measurements, that is,
preintervention measurement and measurements during intervention.
1 .Identification of Problems 2. Need Assessment 3. Selection of Social Work Research Design Introduce 4. Pre-Intervention Measurement (Data Collection) 5. IntroduceIntervention 6. Assess the Intervention Effects (Data Collection)
Relevance of Research in Social Work
Social work is a practice profession. As such, the major objective of social work research is to search for answers to questions raised regarding interventions or practice effectiveness. In other words social work research attempts to provide knowledge about what interventions or treatments really help or hinder the attainment of social work goals. In addition, it also helps in searching for answers to problems or difficulties faced by social work practitioners in the practice of their profession. Ultimately it helps building knowledge base for social work theory and practice.
Social work research also deals with problems faced by professional social workers, social work agencies and community in its concern with social work functions. In other words in social work research the problems to be investigated are always found in the course of doing social work or planning to do it (Dasgupta, 1968).
It is obvious that in social work research the study of a problem is from the point of view of social work and that of professional social work. The designing of research problems, data collection and its interpretation will have to be attempted in a manner as would be useful to professional social work which would add new knowledge to the social work theory and practice and improve the efficiency of professional social workers.
Social work research is regarded as the systematic use of research concepts, methods, techniques and strategies to provide information related to the objectives of social work programmes and practices.
Thus the unit of analysis of social work research could be individuals, groups, families or programme of the agency. That is, social work research, typically focuses on assessment of practitioner’s work with individuals, groups, families, communities or appraisal of agencies or programmes that involve the continued efforts of practitioners with many clients. As such, the research design, data collection and analytic strategies in social work research vary as a function of unit of analysis and programme of agencies of social work practitioner.
Social work research is the use of the scientific method in the search of knowledge, including
knowledge of alternate practice and intervention techniques, which would be of direct use to the social work profession and thus enhance the practice of social work methods. Social work research focuses on or confines itself to select aspects of behaviour and alternate models of behaviour modifications.
Social work research helps to find ways and means to enhance social functioning at the individual, group, community and societal levels.
Social work research lays special emphasis on evaluation. This is one of the reasons that social work research is also understood as evaluative research. Under social work research, varieties of evaluative researches are undertaken. Some of the researches are on impacts or effects, efficacy and
effectiveness. Evaluation of agencies and its projects and programmes are some of the specialized areas of social work research.
Scope of Social Work Research
Social work profession has a scientific base, which consists of a special body of knowledge; tested knowledge, hypothetical knowledge and assumptive knowledge. Assumptive knowledge requires transformation into hypothetical knowledge, which in turn needs transformation into tested
knowledge. Social work research has significant role in transforming the hypothetical and assumptive knowledge to tested knowledge (Khinduka,1965).
Identification of social work needs and resources, evaluation of programmes and services of social work agencies are some of the areas in which social work researches are undertaken. Social work research may be conducted to know the problems faced by professional social workers in social work agencies and communities in its concern with social work functions. Thus, social work research embraces the entire gamut of social work profession; concepts, theories, methods, programmes, services and the problems faced by social workers in their practice.
Goals and Limitations of Social Work Research
Social work research offers an opportunity for all social workers to make differences in their practice.
There is no doubt about the fact that social worker will be more effective practitioner guided by the findings of social work research. Thus, social work research seeks to accomplish the same humanistic goals, as does a social work method. Social work research deals with those methods and issues, which are useful in evaluating social work programmes and practices. It explains the methodology of social research and illustrates its applications in social work settings.
A substantive part of social work practice is concerned with the micro-level practice, such as working with individuals, groups, or a community. Social work research has to take into consideration the limitations of micro level design of study and techniques.
Social work research is basically a practice based research which mostly draws its inferences through inductive reasoning. That is, inferring something about a whole group or a class of objects from the facts or knowledge of one or few members of that group/class. Thus, in practice based research inductive reasoning carries us from observation to theory through intervention/assessment.
Practitioners, for example, may observe that delinquents tend to come from family with low socio- economic status. Based on the assumption that the parent-child bond is weaker in low socio-economic families and that such parents, therefore, have less control over their children, the practitioners may inductively conclude that a weak parent-child bond leads to delinquency.
A substantive part of social work practice is concerned with the micro-level practice, such as working with individuals, groups, or a community. Practice based research has to take into consideration the limitations of micro level practice. Accordingly, practice based research has to have special design of study and techniques.
Steps of the research process
Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering a multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This process is used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method (scientific method of inquiry, evaluation research, or action research). The process focuses on testing hunches or ideas in a park and recreation setting through a systematic process. In this process, the study is documented in such a way that another individual can conduct the same study again. This is referred to as replicating the study. Any research done without documenting the study so that others can review the process and results is not an investigation using the scientific research process. The scientific research process is a multiple-step process where the steps are interlinked with the other steps in the process. If changes are made in one step of the process, the researcher must review all the other steps to ensure that the changes are reflected throughout the process.
Step 1: Identify the Problem
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend nationally. In the example in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity, which is a local problem and concern within the community. This serves as the focus of the study.
Step 2: Review the Literature
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity study, the review of literature enables the programmer to discover horrifying statistics related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in terms of health issues, death rates, and projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer finds several articles and information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that describe the benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day.
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research project. In the example, the programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem and the purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could be studied based on genetics, family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure activities, or health issues. All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore, the problem and purpose of the study must be more clearly defined. The programmer has decided that the purpose of the study is to determine if walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will improve the individual’s health.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To minimize confusion about what the terms & phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the study. In the obesity study, the concept of “individual’s health” can be defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual health. For this study, the individual’s health is defined as physical health. The concept of physical health may also be defined and measured in many ways. In this case, the programmer decides to more narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study is more manageable for the programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary data for the study.
Step 5: Define the Population
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development, employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of technology into the operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group of people in the community, the study could examine a specific age group, males or females, people living in a specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of options are available to the researcher to specifically identify the group to study. The research problem and the purpose of the study assist the researcher in identifying the group to involve in the study. In research terms, the group to involve in the study is always called the population. Defining the population assists the researcher in several ways.
First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large population to one that is manageable. Second, the population identifies the group that the researcher’s efforts will be focused on within the study. This helps ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during the study. Finally, by defining the
population, the researcher identifies the group that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the example in table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the study as children ages 10 to 12 years.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is composed of numerous decisions and considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity study, the researcher has decided to have the children participate in a walking program for six months. The group of participants is called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. The study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the community, so a smaller group is used to represent the population. The researcher develops the plan for the walking program, indicating what data will be collected, when and how the data will be collected, who will collect the data, and how the data will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for the study. This ensures that the programmer has carefully thought through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-step plan to be followed in the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research question.
Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is from the literature or from subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the programmers will be collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the number of days the person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the class.
The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program. These two sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on weight, body fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be answered.
In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the subjects to the measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These two sets of data will be analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement and the second measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to determine if the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are statistically significant, the study validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the study also provide valuable information about one strategy to combat childhood obesity in the community.
As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific research process requires you to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. You cannot conduct a study using the scientific research process when time is limited or the study is done at the last minute.
Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either false conclusions or conclusions that are not of any value to the organization.
Social Work Research Unit – II
Basic elements of research Concept
A concept is an abstraction representing an object, a property of an object, are a certain phenomenon for example ‘ water “, mass, weight and density, are concepts used by physical scientists. Concepts such as, a social status, role, caste, religion, and family are common among sociologist
A concept of more intrest to social researher is social status its is an abstraction formed from the observation of certain traits of individuals. This traits are associated with the possision of individuals in the society, etc. The assessment of various indicators put together and expresed in a word - social status
Every scientific discripstion has developed its unique set of concepts for communicating its reserach findings the improtances of concepts in scientific investigation may be gauged from the fact that the conceptual system
Concept and construct
In research we enumerate two sets of terms the 1st includes the terms ar words which we point to and object the term ro ward represents for example, when we say house we can point to an object the word represents , we can also mesure the area on which its exists, the height width and thicknes of wall and such other dimensions of the house, there are many similar terms such as tree, temple, book, chalk, and so on for which we can point of numerous objects mesure their dimensions , the seconds set of terms susch as a race, religion, intelligence, achivements,etc does not have objects to point out this terms are abstraction from the observation
Hence we frist define this terms anthen we respond to the definitions instead of observable characteristics, the terms of the 1st set which have direct empirical refference are reffered to as concepts where as the terms in second set have no direct empirical refference and are reffered as construct
variables
Very simply, a VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group, person to person, or even within one person over time. There are six common variable type Case example of descriptive study variables Variables are important to understand because they are the basic units of the information studied and interpreted in research studies. Researchers carefully analyze and interpret the value(s) of each variable to make sense of how things relate to each other in a descriptive study or what has happened in an experiment.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables. For example, if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching procedure, then the dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the content taught using that procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent variable depends on the variation in the independent variable.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
. . . are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve manipulating existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or introducing new variables (e.g., adopting a totally new method for some sections of a class) in the research setting. Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent variable(s) will have some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent variables.
INTERVENING VARIABLES
refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the independent and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside the subjects' heads, including various language learning processes which the researcher cannot observe.
For example, if the use of a particular teaching technique is the independent variable and mastery of the objectives is the dependent variable, then the language learning processes used by the subjects are the intervening variables.
MODERATOR VARIABLES
affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying the effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables, moderator variables are measured and taken into consideration. Typical moderator variables in TESL and language acquisition research (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age, culture, or language proficiency of the subjects.
CONTROL VARIABLES
Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called control variables.
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the dependent variable(s) but which are not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous. They may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by the independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.
Operationalization of concept
Operationalization is the process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors. The process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically and quantitatively.
For experimental research, where interval or ratio measurements are used, the scales are usually well defined and strict.
Operationalization also sets down exact definitions of each variable, increasing the quality of the results, and improving the robustness of the design.
For many fields, such as social science, which often use ordinal measurements, operationalization is essential. It determines how the researchers are going to measure an emotion or concept, such as the level of distress or aggression.
Such measurements are arbitrary, but allow others to replicate the research, as well as perform statistical analysis of the results.
Fuzzy Concepts Fuzzy concepts are vague ideas, concepts that lack clarity or are only partially true. These are often referred to as "conceptual variables".
It is important to define the variables to facilitate accurate replication of theresearch process. For example, a scientist might propose the hypothesis:
“Children grow more quickly if they eat vegetables.”
What does the statement mean by 'children'? Are they from America or Africa. What age are they? Are the children boys or girls? There are billions of children in the world, so how do you define the sample groups?
How is 'growth' defined? Is it weight, height, mental growth or strength? The statement does not strictly define the measurable, dependent variable.
What does the term 'more quickly' mean? What units, and what timescale, will be used to measure this? A short-term experiment, lasting one month, may give wildly different results than a longer-term study.
The frequency of sampling is important for operationalization, too.
If you were conducting the experiment over one year, it would not be practical to test the weight every 5 minutes, or even every month. The first is impractical, and the latter will not generate enough
analyzable data points.
What are 'vegetables'? There are hundreds of different types of vegetable, each containing different levels of vitamins and minerals. Are the children fed raw vegetables, or are they cooked? How does the researcher standardize diets, and ensure that the children eat their greens?
Operationalization
The above hypothesis is not a bad statement, but it needs clarifying and strengthening, a process called operationalization.
The researcher could narrow down the range of children, by specifying age, sex, nationality, or a combination of attributes. As long as the sample group is representative of the wider group, then the statement is more clearly defined.
Growth may be defined as height or weight. The researcher must select a definable and measurable variable, which will form part of the research problemand hypothesis.
Again, 'more quickly' would be redefined as a period of time, and stipulate the frequency of sampling.
The initial research design could specify three months or one year, giving a reasonable time scale and taking into account time and budget restraints.
Each sample group could be fed the same diet, or different combinations of vegetables. The researcher might decide that the hypothesis could revolve around vitamin C intake, so the vegetables could be analyzed for the average vitamin content.
Alternatively, a researcher might decide to use an ordinal scale of measurement, asking subjects to fill in a questionnaire about their dietary habits.
Already, the fuzzy concept has undergone a period of operationalization, and the hypothesis takes on a testable format.
The Importance of Operationalization
Of course, strictly speaking, concepts such as seconds, kilograms and centigrade are artificial constructs, a way in which we define variables.
Pounds and Fahrenheit are no less accurate, but were jettisoned in favor of the metric system. A researcher must justify their scale of scientific measurement.
Operationalization defines the exact measuring method used, and allows other scientists to follow exactly the same methodology. One example of the dangers of non-operationalization is the failure of the Mars Climate Orbiter.
This expensive satellite was lost, somewhere above Mars, and the mission completely failed.
Subsequent investigation found that the engineers at the sub-contractor, Lockheed, had used imperial units instead of metric units of force.
A failure in operationalization meant that the units used during the construction and simulations were not standardized. The US engineers used pound force, the other engineers and software designers, correctly, used metric Newtons.
This led to a huge error in the thrust calculations, and the spacecraft ended up in a lower orbit around Mars, burning up from atmospheric friction. This failure in operationalization cost hundreds of millions of dollars, and years of planning and construction were wasted.
How To Formulate Research Problem?
Formulating the research problem and hypothesis acts as a major step or phase in the research methodology. In research, the foremost step that comes into play is that of defining the research problem and it becomes almost a necessity to have the basic knowledge and understanding of most of its elements as this would help a lot in making a correct decision. The research problem can be said to be complete only if it is able to specify about the unit of analysis, time and space boundaries, features that are under study, specific environmental conditions that are present in addition to prerequisite of the research process.
ResearchProcess
Research process is very commonly referred to as the planning process. One important point to be kept in mind here is to understand that the main aim of the research process is that of improving,the.knowledge.ofthe.humanbeings.
1.The.Primarystage:This,stage,includes –
a. Observation – The first step in the research process is that of the observation, research work starts with the observation which can be either unaided visual observation or guided and controlled observation.It can be said that an observation leads to research, the results obtained from research result in final observations which can play a crucial part in carrying out further research. Deliberate and guided observations also play an important part in this primary stage.
This method is very simple and helps a great deal in framing of the hypothesis as it is very accurate in nature but it also has some major limitations like some of the occurrences may not be open to the observation and the occurrences which may be open for observation may not be studied conveniently.
b. Interest – As studied in the above paragraph, research starts with the observation and it leads to a curiosity to learn and gain more and more about what has been observed. Hence it can be said that observation results in the creation of an interest in the mind of the researcher.The interest can be either academic in nature or it may be a policy making interest. It may be a self interest or a group interest. Group interest is also referred to as the social interest
c. Crystallization – It can be defined as the process involving the designing of the definite form of research to be used in the study of the subject matter that has been observed. During this stage, the research project gets a concrete shape and structure.
d. Formulating a research problem – A research problem can belong to one of the following two categories – it can belong to the category in which there can be relationships between various variables or it may belong to the other category, which is based on nature. In the beginning, it is important for a researcher to find out the general interest or the subject matter, which he wants to study. By this the researcher will be able to state a problem more broadly and also in a much generalized form then the ambiguities linked to the problem can be referred and understood. This really supports in the formulation of a problem of a research. Although this
process is not that simple and requires many fruitful discussions in order to achieve a proper conclusion or a decision.
e. Primary Synopsis – Before starting with the actual study work, it is very necessary for a researcher to prepare a summary or a plan about the activities he has to perform in connection with research operation. This will help him a lot to get a definite idea or an understanding of what would be written in the final report.
f. Conceptual Clarity – It is very much important for a researcher to have in depth knowledge and understanding of the subject or the topic he has to study as it helps a lot in achieving one’s goal and objectives in a much easier and also a comparatively much simpler way.
g. Documentation – The documents help in providing important information to a researcher, document is something in writing it can be a record, files or diaries etc. may be published or unpublished in nature. Documents can be extracted and can be used in the research work.
Various documents can be classified as –
2. Secondary stage: – This stage of the research consists of all the features that are actually required to run a research project. This stage includes the following –
a. Research project planning: – Involves selection of the future courses of action for conducting and directing a research project. A research project plan gives a rational approach to research by which one is able to decide in advance about what to do, how to do, when to do, where to do and who is to do a particular task in a specific activity.
b. Research Project formulation: – After the planning of the project has been done the researcher follows this with a practical approach in order to carry out the project. This step of the secondary stage involves the systematic setting forth of the total research project, with an aim of conducting a systematic study.
c. Data collection: – This step involves the in depth meaning for the concepts that are to be investigated and looks forward to data analysis, data requirement etc… Sources of understatement or overstatement should be avoided and the data should be free from any type of error. The data collection planning should be done or implemented in a very careful manner, with the help of specialist researchers. The data should be good and meaningful in nature should not only be a collection of words but should provide meaningful information.
d. Classification and tabulation – Classification can be defined as the arrangement of the data into groups and classes depending on the resemblance and the similarities. By classification, the data can be condensed in a very elegant way by which the various important features can be easily noticed i.e. one can easily highlight the various salient features of the data at a glance. Tabulation of the data can be defined as the orderly arrangement of the data in columns and the rows this step also helps a great deal in the condensation of the data and also in the analysation of the relations, trends etc
e. Data Analysis – In this step, the collected data is arranged according to some pattern or a particular format and this analysation of the data is done mainly to provide the data with a meaning. It is actually the computing of the some of the measures supported by the search for the relationship patterns, existing among the group of the data.
f. Testing of a hypothesis: – This step of testing acts as the back bone of the data analysis.
Various tests like “t” test, “z” test. Chi square test are used by the statisticians for the testing of the hypothesis.
g. Interpretation of results: – It is very important that the results are interpreted into action recommendations and the results should be able to refer to a decision i.e. should help in drawing a conclusion.
3.FinalStage:-This.stage.involves –
a. Conclusions and recommendations – This act as the crux of the research project work.
Recommendations are based on the conclusions obtained and further these conclusions are based on the interpretation of the results of data analysis. But a major point to be kept in mind here is that all these conclusions and the recommendations should be linked to the research hypothesis stated.
b. Report Writing - For the researcher as well as the reader, report writing is very crucial as it acts as the best way for communication between the two. Report written must be very simple in nature with easy language, high clarity. Report writing cannot be done by everyone and requires an especial skilled person for this purpose.
Every true experimental design must have this statement at the core of its structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment.
The hypothesis is generated via a number of means, but is usually the result of a process of inductive reasoning where observations lead to the formation of a theory. Scientists then use a large battery of deductive methods to arrive at a hypothesis that is testable, falsifiable and realistic.
The precursor to a hypothesis is a research problem, usually framed as a question. It might ask what, or why, something is happening.
For example, to use a topical subject, we might wonder why the stocks of cod in the North Atlantic are declining. The problem question might be ‘Why are the numbers of Cod in the North Atlantic declining?’
This is too broad as a statement and is not testable by any reasonable scientificmeans. It is merely a tentative question arising from literature reviews and intuition. Many people would think that instinct and intuition are unscientific, but many of the greatest scientific leaps were a result of ‘hunches’.
The research hypothesis is a paring down of the problem into something testable and falsifiable. In the aforementioned example, a researcher might speculate that the decline in the fish stocks is due to prolonged over fishing. Scientists must generate a realistic and testable hypothesis around which they can build the experiment.
Hypothesis Formulation
When research is conducted hypothesis formulation is one of the most preliminary step. Hypothesis formulation helps in formulating research problem. Hypothesis formulation is not a necessary but an important step of research. A valid and reasonable research can be conducted without any hypothesis.
Hypothesis can be one and it can be as many as possible.
Definition of Hypothesis:
A hypothesis is a possible answer to a research question. It is a presumption or a hunch on the bases of which a study has to be conducted. This hypothesis is tested for possible rejection or approval. If hypothesis get accepted it shows that your hunch was right if it get rejected it still does not mean that your research was not valid but ti means that it is the opposite way you thought and perceived. Whether it is approved or not it gives you some conclusion and adds to the available body of knowledge.
A hypothesis which has been tested again and again by various researchers can still be tested for making it more valid but if the hypothesis ha been approved in such a manner that it has become a law than it is better to test something that adds to the available knowledge rather than approving something which has been approved many times before.
Example:
For example if you want to conduct a study on the Effects of Parental Depression on the Academic Performance of Children, you may like to conduct it without any hypothesis but then you will have many dimensions to think upon and will be more likely get distracted. If you formulate a hypothesis, that parental depression results in depression in children too and this depression leads to low grades, your research will get a direction and you will not think about the broader effects of depression everything is well defined you have to test the impact of depression on the children's depression and as well as on the grades of children. You may not need to test the impacts on the extra curricular activities, class conduct and other such things.
Characteristics of a Well-formulated Research Hypothesis:
Testable and Verifiable: A research hypothesis has t5o be checked for possible approval or rejection.
This analysis is done statistically and, therefore it should be such that can be tested and analyzed. After analysis the results can be obtained. Some hypothesis can not be tested because they are too subjective and they are not suitable for research. Research needs objectivity and evidences without these two things any research is impossible to conduct. For example you may want to conduct a research on the existence of God but to prove the existence of God is a far different phenomenon and even you may formulate a hypothesis is but you can not test it statistically, therefore, such hypothesis and research questions should be avoided.
Simple and Clear: The wording of the hypothesis should have to be simple and clear. Any complex ideas and wordings should be avoided. A simple hypothesis will make it easier for you to carry on through out the research and will be easy for the reader to understand. In addition to the terminology and phrasing the hypothesis should have to be clear in your mind from every perspective. If there are any ambiguities or questions in your mind, resolve them at this stage; if they are not clear you will find it hard to conduct the study in later stages.
Relevant: The hypothesis should have to be relevant to the study that you are about to conduct. An irrelevant hypothesis will lead to an invalid research. Hypothesis is the possible answer to your research question if your presumption or your presumed answer is wrong and irrelevant your method to find its accuracy too will not result in any relevant conclusions. Check whether your hypothesis is related to the direction in which you have planned to take your research or not.
Importance of Research Hypothesis: For a new
researcher it is important to have research hypothesis so as to be directional. Research hypothesis can be present in research and it may not be but if it is present it can have following benefits.
Clarity: Hypothesis brings clarity to research. It makes your mind clear about the way in which you have to carry on the research. Methodology of research depends greatly on research hypothesis. Clarity brings 50 % chances of success in research. At each step you need to be clear about every aspect and dimension. If you are not clear about a single thing you should not go forward, stay where ever you are and resolve the issue and then move to the next step.
Focus: You formulate your research hypothesis and you get a focal point in your research. You need not go off the track and stay intact to the main objective which you set after the hypothesis. Your research becomes organized and haphazard actions are minimized.
Direction: Hypothesis sets a direction of research. This direction shows you what should be the
objectives, methodology, mode of analysis and research design. With hypothesis you have a confidence that whatever you have presumed will be tested rather than testing something that is irrelevant to the research.
Objectivity: Every research requires objectivity but without hypothesis you may collect data which is not relevant to the research and hence decreases the objectivity of the research. When you know that your hypothesis only deals with a particular aspect of the phenomenon you will not collect data that is not required and the objectivity and validity of the research increases.
Add to the Body of Knowledge: A hypothesis add to the available body of knowledge. For example you study different literature and you find out that this much work has already been done on this topic and you should concentrate on the gaps that are yet to be filled by new research you formulate a hypothesis and keep your direction towards it.
Types of Hypothesis
1.Research Hypothesis
The hypothesis derived from theiries is termed as research, hypothesis or working hypothesis. The researcher, wh wishes to study a social phenomenon, looks for various theories about the social phenomenon, because theories explain the nature of things or events. Thus, these explanation are regraded as supposition, or tentative statements about reality until their are verified to the researcher’s satisfaction. These suppositions or statements identified by the researcher for testing know as research hypothesis and conventionally symbolized as H1. Example of research hypothesis are: female visit cinema oftener than make or broken homes lead to juvenile delinquency.
2.Null Hypothesis For the purpose of testing a research hypothesis, a researcher formulate the corollary of it which is termed as null hypothesis. It is in one way, the reverse of research hypothesis, which refutes or denies the relationship expressed in research hypothesis. In other words, a null hypotheisis states that there is no difference or relationship between variables. Let us consider the research hypothesis dicussed above
H1 Female visit cinema ofterner than Male.
H2 Broken homes leads to juvenile delinquency.
The null hypotheses for the above research hypotheses would be:
H0 Females and males do not differ in respect of the frequency of visting cinema.
H0 There is no relationship between broken homes and juvenile delinquency.
Conventionally, the null hypothesis is tested in researach because it is ordinarily more exact, and is easy to disprove. Statistical techniques are better adopted to test a null hypothesis.
Step in Testing Hypothesis
Step 1: State the research Hypothesis. (H1) : There is a ignificant difference between undergraduate and post-graduate students with regards to their
reading habits Step 2; Formulate the Null Hypothesis (H2) : There is no significant difference between undergraduate and post-graduate students with regard to their reading habits.
Step 3: Choose a Statistical Test : Let us suppose that we have decided to use chi-square statistic(X 2) to test the relationship between the variables considered in the research hypothesis.
Step 4: Specify a Significance Level : Further, we soppose that we would like to test our hypothesis at .05 level of significance.
Step 5: Compute the Statistical Test : In this step the researcher has to cross-tabulate his data and compute chi-square test Step 6: Reject/Accept the H0 : If the calculate value of chi-square is more than critical value we reject the null hypothesis
Step 7: Draw the Inference, i.e., Accept/Reject H1 : we accept the research hypothesis because the null hypothesis has been rejected.Hence,we can infer
that there is asiginificant difference between undergraduate and post-graduate students with regard to their reading habbits.
Type I and Type II Errors Unlike physiscal sciences,in social sciences we do not find propositions that indicate certainty in real world almost all the propositions generally indicate some sort of probabilities.Thus instead of stating that if A is true,B must follow,we say only if A is true,B will probably also be true. We thus admit the possibillity that B may be false even if A is true. Thus,if we reject A whenever B is false,we also run the risk of making error that of rejected a true research hypothesis (H1). We refer to this kind of error as type I error or α error. Otherwise if we fail to reject (accept) A when B is true, we again run the risk of making an error, since A may actually be false.Accepting a false research hypothesis (H1) is referred to as type II error or β error.
Examples:
1. Most members will conform to sociental norm (A).
2.It is a norm of society not to steal.
3. B is a member of society
Type I error : population differ when in fact they are a like.
Type II error : Two populations are a like when in fact they differ.
Population realities
. Difference No difference . Research Coclusions (Draw on the basis
of sample) Reject Ho --- (there is difference0
. Accept Ho- --- (There id difference)
3.. Explanatory or Descriptive hypothesis – This type of the hypothesis generally involves data about the cause of the process or about the law on which it is based. Hypothesis involving data about the cause is explanatory in approach and the hypothesis involving laws acts descriptive in the approach.
4. Tentative hypothesis – Such a hypothesis is made, when one does not possess complete information and understanding about a certain process or phenomenon. Such a situation, when one is not able to understand the process may occur due to the technical difficulties. It is also possible to test two or more hypothesis simultaneously the hypothesis about the propagation of light, namely, wave theory and the corpuscular theory of light both describe the light’ s phenomenon but among both of these none of them is final hence these can be referred to as tentative in nature.
5.. Representative fictions – Some hypothesis are based on the assumptions and depending on the nature of the case, it is not at all possible to prove these assumptions by the direct means such hypothesis is referred to as the representative fictions. The only positive point of these representative fictions is that they are very suitable in order to explain the whole phenomenon.
Problems faced during hypothesis formulation
Formulating a hypothesis is not at all an easy process and is faced with a large number of difficulties.
According to Goode and Hatt, the various difficulties faced during the formulation of the hypothesis generally include the lack of the knowledge about the scientific approach of the method involved, as sometimes it becomes impossible to gather the complete information about a particular scientific method. One other major difficulty in the formulation of the hypothesis is the lack of clear theoretical background. Because of this problem of unclear and indefinite background of theory one is not able to arrive to a conclusion easily.
But with time answers to all such problems are available and these difficulties that arise during the hypothesis formulation can be easily removed by having complete and accurate information about the concepts of the subjects involved. Also the hypothesis should not be very long and should be timely in nature.
Social work Research Unit-III
Research Design Conventional Designs
Design procedures using stresses or moments which have been determined by widely accepted methods.
DEFINE
At this stage the requirements are developed. Questions like how big, how fast, how expensive, etc are proposed in this stage.
MEASURE
In this stage other competitors are reviewed. Also internal reference designs are reviewed as well. At this stage, the test plan creation is usually started.
ANALYZE
At this stage the data collected in the "measure" stage is analyzed. Further reviews might be needed. It is at this stage where the specs get "locked down."
DESIGN
At this stage the design work begins. Engineers use tools such as CAD, spreadsheets, FEAs and verification (prototype) designs are developed. The design is further refined at this stage.
VERIFY
At this stage the designs go through the qualification testing, as well as any regulatory testing. Failure to complete this stage is at its most expensive, since tools have been created, lines have been created etc.
Failure to pass regulatory tests can push the release of a design up to 1 year later.
PRODUCTION
The design is released for production. Further improvements and cost reduction activities start and continue at this stage for the life of the product.
OBSOLESCENCE
All good things come to an end. At this stage, perhaps competitor comes out with a better design, the cost of the raw materials have gone up, the tools get old, the market no longer wants it, key
components are going obsolete, whatever.
It is at this stage that the decision is made to retire the design. A new product may be needed, which will start the process all over again.
Research Purpose
The purpose of your research can be exploratory, descriptive, explanatory or policy-oriented. These categories are not mutually exclusive, they are a matter of emphasis. As any research study will change and develop over time, you may identify more than one purpose. These four types of research are discussed below.
Exploratory Research
Exploratory research might involve a literature search or conducting focus group
interviews. The exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the researcher’s need for better understanding, may test the feasibility of a more extensive study, or determine the best methods to be used in a subsequent study. For these reasons, exploratory research is broad
in focus and rarely provides definite answers to specific research issues.
The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues and key variables. For example, one outcome might be a better system of measurement for a specific
variable.Ifyoudefineyourstudyasexploratoryresearch,thenyouneedtoclearlydefinete objectives. Calling your report “exploratory” inot an excuse for lack of definition.
EXAMPLE
An example in the business environment might be an exploratory study of a new management
technique in order to brief a management team. This would be a vital first step before deciding whether to embrace the technique
Descriptive Research
As its name suggests, descriptive research seeks to provide an accurate description of observations of a phenomena. The object of the collection of census data is to accurately describe basic information about a national population at a particular point in time. The objective of much descriptive research is tomap the terrain of a specific phenomenon. A study of this type could start with questions such as: ‘What similarities or contrasts exist between A and B?’,where A and B are differentdepartments in the same organisation, different regional operations of the same firm, or different companies in the same industry. Such descriptive comparisonscan produce useful insights and lead to hypothesis-formation.
EXAMPLE
A detailed set of data on the profile of clients would be an example of this
type of report. By understanding the customer better,sales and marketing management will be able to take better decisions on new product development.
Explanatory Research
Explanatory studies look for explanations of the nature
of certain relationships. Hypothesis testing provides an understanding of the relationships that exist between variables. Zikmund (1984) suggests that the degree of uncertainty about the research problem determines the research methodology, as illustrated in the Table below.
Exploratory Research Descriptive Research
Explanatory Research Degree of
Problem Definition
Key variables not defined
Key variables are defined
Key variables and key relationships are defined
Possible Situations
“Quality of service is declining and we don’t know why.”
“Would people be interested in our new product idea?”
“How important is business process re- engineering as a strategy?”
“What have been the
trends in organisational downsizing over the past ten years?”
“Did last year’s product recall have an impact on our company’s share price?”
“Has the average merger rate for financial institutions increased in the past
decade?”
“Which of two training programs is more effective for reducing labour turnover?”
“Can I predict the value of energy stocks if I know the current dividends and growth rates of dividends?”
“Do buyers prefer our product in a new package?”
Experimental Study Design
An experimental study is a type of evaluation that seeks to determine whether a program or
intervention had the intended causal effect on program participants. There are three key components of an experimental study design:
(1) pre-post test design, (2) a treatment group and a control group, and (3) random assignment of study participants.
A pre-post test design requires that you collect data on study participants’ level of performance before the intervention took plac (pre-), and that you collect the same data on where study participants are after the intervention took place (post). This design is the best way to be sure that your intervention had a causal effect.
To get the true effects of the program or intervention, it is necessary to have both a treatment group and a control group. As the name suggests, the treatment group receives the intervention. The control group, however, gets the business-as-usual conditions, meaning they only receive interventions that they would have gotten if they had not participated in the study. By having both a group that received the intervention and another group that did not, researchers control for the possibility that other factors not related to the intervention (e.g., students getting accustomed to a test, or simple maturation over the intervening time) are responsible for the difference between the pre-test and post-test results. It is also important that both the treatment group and the control group are of adequate size to be able to determine whether an effect took place or not. While the size of the sample ought to be determined by specific scientific methods, a general rule of thumb is that each group ought to have at least 30
participants.
Finally, it is important to make sure that both the treatment group and the control group are statistically similar. While no two groups will ever be exactly alike, the best way to be sure that they are as close as possible is having a random assignment of the study participants into the treatment group and control group. By randomly assigning participants, you can be sure that any difference between the treatment group and control group is due to chance alone, and not by a selection bias.
.
Pre-post test design study without a control group
A pre-post test design requires that you collect data on study participants’ level of performance before the intervention took place (pre-), and that you collect the same data after the intervention took place (post-). This study design only looks at one group of individuals who receive the intervention, which is called the treatment group. The pre-post test design allows you to make inferences on the effect of your intervention by looking at the difference in the pre-test and post-test results. However, interpreting the pre-test and post-test difference should be done with caution since you cannot be sure that the
differences in the pre-test and the post-test are causally related to the intervention.
Pre-post test design with a control group
While the pre-post test design will allow you to measure the potential effects of an intervention by examining the difference in the pre-test and post-test results, it does not allow you to test whether this difference would have occurred in the absence of your intervention. For example, perhaps the effect of improved academic achievement is due to the students getting used to taking a test rather than the use of educational software. To get the true effects of the program or intervention, it is necessary to have both a treatment group and a control group. As the names suggest, the treatment group receives the intervention. The control group, however, gets the business-as-usual conditions, meaning they only receive interventions that they would have gotten if they had not participated in the study. By having both a group that received the intervention and another group that did not, researchers control for the possibility that other factors not related to the intervention (e.g., students getting accustomed to a test, or simple maturation over the intervening time) are responsible for the difference between the pre-test and post-test results. It is also important that both the treatment group and the control group are of adequate size to be able to determine whether an effect took place or not. While the size of the sample ought to be determined by specific scientific methods, a general rule of thumb is that each group ought to have at least 30 participants.
Quasi-Experimental Study
A quasi-experimental study is a type of evaluation which aims to determine whether a program or intervention has the intended effect on a study’s participants. Quasi-experimental studies take on many forms, but may best be defined as lacking key components of a true experiment. While a true
experiment includes (1) pre-post test design, (2) a treatment group and a control group, and (3) random assignment of study participants, quasi-experimental studies lack one or more of these design elements.
Since the most common form of a quasi-experimental study includes a pre-post test design with both a treatment group and a control group, quasi-experimental studies are often an impact evaluation that assigns members to the treatment group and control group by a method other than random
assignment. Because of the danger that the treatment and control group may differ at the outset, researchers conducting quasi-experimental studies attempt to address this in a number of other ways (e.g., by matching treatment groups to like control groups or by controlling for these differences in analyses). This section focuses on two forms of quasi-experimental studies: a pre-post test design study without a control group and a pre-post test design with a control group.
Single Subject Research
Single subject research is a study which aims to examine whether an intervention has the intended effect on an individual, or on many individuals viewed as one group. The two most common single subject research designs are the A-B-A-B design, and multiple baseline design. Each of these designs has two main components:
(1) a focus on the individual and (2) a design in which each individual is used as his or her own control observation.
The focus on the individual differs from other research designs, such as experimental and quasi- experimental designs, which look at the average effect of an intervention within or between groups of people. In single subject research, researchers often use more than one individual, but results are examined by using each individual as his or her own control, rather than averaging results of different groups. Comparisons are made on the behavior of one individual to that same individual at a different point in time.
Single subject research has an important role to play in identifying and documenting solutions for individuals with disabilities. The field needs much more evidence on what works for whom, under what conditions, for which tasks, etc. Although individuals with disabilities—even those with the same diagnosis—often experience unique needs, solutions may be adaptable in different
environments, and knowledge sharing can inform others working on assistive solutions
Multiple baseline design
Because single subject designs focus on studying individuals rather than groups, they can be particularly vulnerable to threats to internal validity. Internal validity addresses how valid it is to make causal inferences about the intervention in the study. For more, see section on validity.Particular internal validity threats in the A-B-A-B single subject research design are maturation (the natural growth in the study participant’s ability over time) and test-retest (a study participant doing better on each administration of a test due to their experience taking the test). The multiple baseline design helps to control for these threats to internal validity by having a study participant give multiple baseline observations before using the intervention. Further, if multiple individuals are tested with the treatment given at different time points for different individuals, researchers can have a better
understanding of whether or not the treatment is effective. Unlike A-B-A-B single subject research designs,.
