The Right to Freedom of Information in Inida

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THE RIGHT TOFREEDOIVI OF ||\|FOR|\/|AT|0N IN INDIA

Tl-I IZSIS SUBMITTED BY

M.C.PRAMODAN

FOR Tl-IE DEGREE O.F DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY FACULTY OF LAW

COCHIN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COCI-IIN 682 O22

JANUARY I991

(2)

CERTI F ICATE

This is to certify that this thesis entitled

"The Right to Freedom of Information in Inida", submitted by Shri M.C.Pramodan, for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy is

the record of bona fide research carried out under my guidance and supervision from 27 November 1986 in the Department of Law, Cochin University of Science and

Technology, Cochin—22. This thesis, or engr part thereof,

has not been submitted elsewhere for any other degree or

diploma.

c h’ 682 022 Z§X§;@é;é;°§/Zi;L”“

^{OC ln}

24 JanuarY 1991 Dr.V.D.SEBASTIAN

(Supervising Guide)

DECLAR§Zl9§

I do hereby declare that this thesis entitled

"The Right to Freedom of Information in India", has been

originally carried out by me under the guidance and

supervision of Dr.V.D.SEBASTIAN, Director, School of Indian Legal Thought, Mahatma Gandhiji University, Kottayam. This work has not been submitted, either in part or in whole, for any degree or diploma at any university.

A/L’//

Cochin 682 022 \,<;;5i”//////

\/

24 January 1991 M.C.PRAMODAN

(3)

PREFACE

]k1 a modern welfare democracy, there occured an

enormous increase in the governmental activities. The presence of Government is felt in all walks of life. Along

with the greater lKﬂ£2 of Government, there also arose the problem of accountability of the Government to the people.

Openness in the governmental functioning is thus found to be

a necessity. with this purpose in mind, nations like the

United States, Australia, New Zealand etc., enacted statutes which provided for right (M5 access to pmblic records. In

India a legislation with the above purpose is found to be lacking. In such a situation the democratic functioning of our' Government itselfi is seriously affected. With these

facts in mind, I undertook a study cnlfreédgm of information

in India. Within time limited tinm: and facilities, II have

tried my level best in focussing the problems involved this

area.

The guidance rendered by Dr.V.D.SEBASTIAN has been

of great help to awn I am beholden tcwlrhn for his superb

guidance and encouragement.

(4)

I express my gratitude to the Cochin University of

Science and Technology for awarding the Junior Research

Fllowship for the past four years.

I also use this opportunity to thank Dr.P.Leelakrishnan,

- - 0 0 O - - I

lhwnh Department (at Law, (knﬂana University (H; Science and Technology, who has encouraged me a lot.

I also thank all other persons \HMD had extended their helping hands in the course of the research programme.

My thanks aux? also due ix) Mr.K.P.Sibiraj who neatly typed

this thesis.

M.C.P.

(5)

Chapter l

2

3

4

5 6

7 8 9

IO

ll

CONTENTS

RIGHT TO KNOW IN A MODERN DEMOCRACY

CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS OF THE RIGHT TO KNOW OPENNESS IN LEGISLATURE JUDICIARY

AND LOCAL BODIES EXECUTIVE PRIVILEGE

OFFICIAL SECRETS LEGISLATION CLASSIFICATION OF DOCUMENTS JUDICIAL REVIEW

EXEMPTIONS TO THE RIGHT TO KNOW MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

TOWARD A SYSTEM OF FREEDOM OF INFORMATION CONCLUSIONS

APPENDIX

TABLE OF CASES BIBLIOGRAPHY

Page

l

14 54 lO6 164 180 188 247 425 497 509 A-1

T—l 13-1-

(6)

- CTABLEC 9? r¢°*1'?51Tl'_5

Chapter

1 RIGHT TO KNOW IN A MODERN DEMOCRACY

Reasons for secrecy Dangers of secrecy Information as power

Citizen's participation in a democracy People as a sovereign in a democracy

Conclusion

2 CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS OF THE RIGHT TO KNOW

Position in the United States Position in England

Position in India

Justification of right to know under freedom of speech doctrine

Individual self fulfilment Discovery of truth

Participation in political decision making Achievement of a stable community Checking function

Right to know as a pre-condition for self government

Conclusion

3 OPENNESS IN LEGISLATURE, JUDICIARY AND

LOCAL BODIES

A. Openness in legislature Position in England

Position in the United States Position in India

Questions for information

Publication of the proceedings

in the legislature

Pages 1-13 l

5 6 7

9 13

14-53

23 32 38 41 42 46 47 48 49

SO

52

54-105

54 56 57 58

6O 61

(7)

Position in England Position in India

Position in the United States

Conclusion

B. Openness in the judiciary Position in England

Publication of dissenting opinion Reporting of decisions

Inquiry into the allegations against a judge C. Openness in the local authorities

Advantages of open meeting statutes Position in common law

Statutory right to inspect and take

copies of documents

Councillor's right to documents from the local authority

Sunshine laws

Position in India

Conclusion

EXECUTIVE PRIVI LEGE

Position in the United States Position in Englandi

Position in India

Sukhdev Singh‘s case Amarchand Butai1's case Raj Narain's case

Judge's Transfer case

Judge's Transfer case-—A critique Unpublished official records

Head of the department

Affidavit by the head of the department As he thinks fit

Affairs of State

Section 124, Evidence Act Public officer

Procedure under section 124

Communications in official confidence Conclusion

62 64 65 66 67 70 75 80 82 84 85 86 86 88 90 91 93 95 103

106-163

lO8 117 125 130 134 137 143 146 150 152 153 154 155 159 160 160 162 163

(8)

OFFICIAL SECRETS LEGISLATION

Early period The Indian Act‘

Conclusion

CLASSIFICATION OF DOCUMENTS

Position in England

Conclusion

JUDICIAL REVIEW

A. Balancing of conflicting interests Statutes and balancing process Position in the United States Position in England

Position in India

Conslusion

B. Final authority on disclosure issues Position in England

Position in India

Position in the United States

Conclusion

C. In camera inspection

Position in the United States Position in England

Position in India

Conclusion

D. Standing to assert the public interest

privilege

Position in England

Position in the United States Position in India ¢

Conclusion

l64—179 164

168 178

180-187

181 183 184

186^188—246

\ .

188 189 191 192 193197 198 199 207 207 209 210 214 214 215 218 219 219 222 225 226

(9)

Position in the United States Position in

Position in

Conclusion

Waiver

The onus in asserting the privilege

England

India Loss of privilege

Prior disclosure Passage of time

Position in National Position in Position in

Conclusion Conclusion

The rationing of cabinet secrecy Nature of the document

Judicial review: An evaluation ..

EXEMPTIONS TO THE RIGHT TO KNOW

A Documents relating to defence matters the United States

security

England

India

B Documents relating to diplomatic affairs ..

C Cabinet documents

The period of secrecy Prior disclosure

What constitutes cabinet documents Access to documents of a previous cabinet

Position in Position in Position in Position in Position in

Conclusion

D Investigatory Position in Position in Position in

Conclusion

England

Australia

New Zealand Canada

India records

the United States

England India

227 227 228229 230 231 231 233 238 239 243

247-424

248 248 257 259 261 262 266 269 270 271 276 278 279283 285 288 289 290 291 295 300 301 304 306 309

(10)

E. Informer privilege

Conclusion

F. The right to privacy

Government and citizen's right to pnhmcy Position in the United States

Need for protection of privacy——A specific instance: Drug addiction

The Privacy Act

Public service and personal information Student's privacy interest

Information regarding tax

Conclusion

G. Juvenile records

H. Documents regarding trade secrets Contractors and disclosure

Constitutional considerations

Conclusion

I. Documents relating to commercial transactions Position in England

Position in India

Conclusion

J. Legal professional privilege Position in Australia

Legal professional privilege and

the Government Conclusion

K. Confidentiality

L. Other miscellaneous areas

Internal personal rules and practices Inter—department or intra-department

communications

Reports on financial institutions Geological information

M. Exemptions required in Indian situations

Terrorism

Communal riots

Q

I

Q

—

O.

311 317 322 330 336 342 343 344 347 350 352 353 360 368 370373 376 377379 383 385 395 396 397 399 400 401 415 415 416 417 418 420 421 423

(11)

9 MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS ..

A. Statutory privilege ..

Position in England ..

Position in.the United States ..

Position in India ..

Waiver and secrecy statutes ..

Conclusion ..

B. Information as property ..

C. Natural justice and right to know .. Conclusion ..

D. Employees‘ and right to information ..

Position in India ..

Conclusion ..

E. Ombudsman and disclosure of records ..

F. Documents related to torts committed by

State officials or bodies ..

G. Need for Government held dommmwms hieisuit ..

H. Press and peoples right to know ..

I. Discovery ..

Discovery process and the F.O.I.A—

Comparative merits: The American

Experience ..

J. Section 76, Evidence Act ..

Public document ..

The right to inspection ..

Destruction of records ..

K. The right to know at the international level ..

10 TOWARD A SYSTEM OF FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ..

ll CONCLUSIONS .. APPENDIX .. TABLE OF CASES .. BIBLIOGRAPHY ..

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individuals etc., is to be nﬁbt secret in nublic steiest. ‘L. L

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In a modern welfare democracy, the Government

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to bU5in@55 Secrets. Those who hand over this information "

the Government expect that their' identity will not he

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disclosed. Thus, apart from the Government, there is a section of the public who has a vested interest in the

governmental secrecy.

Apart from the notion of governmental secrecy, situations may arise where the governmental agencies are

forced to lie before the public. In times of war, critical domestic crisis, communal riots, terrorist activities or i

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dealing with affairs related to a hostile

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between the Government and private persons. The citizens sometimes may be forced to fight against

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unsuccessiully due to lacs or

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the Government information.

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an equality of access to all in a society thereby reoucin;

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any such close ties with , agencies.

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5. See "On sublicity", Works -: Jeremy Bentham . W

1"’-1'-’:'3_3l~'7, a s q u o t e d

to Government-Held Information, '

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withheld in public interes

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Information es Power

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owponenls. its contitultw of cum oovernment Elf:

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may beQ

to punish the

Publicity as a punitive sanction has come with the vast expansion in the regulatory Government. Inqu

Government are instrumental in maki

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weapon of the Governm

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useo to acquire more information.

Information acquires by the Government may be used

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to be recoouized

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activities of pn€

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and investigations conducted

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activities, uncovered in the course of investi

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gations and inquiries,is enough to shut the mouths of those involved.

Citizen's Partici_ation in a Democracy

ma -5

~ — —;--—_ ——— _~-——— -— -.~__' 7 _____A_ _. ___ ____

representatives of people. They rule for the people on the

rust and Ialth reoosed in them. in a modern do ; ;, tt

FZ,_,_l_:;:_,,:::ll,,._m

In a democracy the country is ruled by the elected

if, ' * 1 ~ LI . T ‘:1 _ . ..'mQC_v 5;-_c&

activities of the Governmentluamaincreased to such an extet_

that without the co~operation of "the people, a Government

cannot

function successfully. Citizen’s participation in

the governmental activities has beuome inevitable.

}bI0uvwiu;'___T:___:_-li —; ___ _ V _ ___ _ __, __' ——-_ _ . 7 __, i ‘ ' *'*_ﬁ_~;'_;_: Ti -ti _ - ; - ;—_ i—;_;' 5 —A—— _—— 7* __;_——_—__— _:——#_¢-,: ;;—_- _—_T _—;>;i, _ '---__7-_;v-»--' ~~

8. Francis E.Rourke] Secrecy and Publicity: Dilemmas D€mOQracg,John Hopkins Press, Baltiﬁore Yl@Eii:§m

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The Right to Freedom of Information in Inida

This is to certify that this thesis entitled

the record of bona fide research carried out under my guidance and supervision from 27 November 1986 in the Department of Law, Cochin University of Science and

has not been submitted elsewhere for any other degree or

c h’ 682 022 Z§X§;@é;é;°§/Zi;L”“

24 JanuarY 1991 Dr.V.D.SEBASTIAN

I do hereby declare that this thesis entitled

originally carried out by me under the guidance and

Cochin 682 022 \,<;;5i”//////

24 January 1991 M.C.PRAMODAN

enormous increase in the governmental activities. The presence of Government is felt in all walks of life. Along

a necessity. with this purpose in mind, nations like the

India a legislation with the above purpose is found to be lacking. In such a situation the democratic functioning of our' Government itselfi is seriously affected. With these

in India. Within time limited tinm: and facilities, II have

Science and Technology for awarding the Junior Research

- - 0 0 O - - I

this thesis.

ll

in the legislature

D. Standing to assert the public interest

\ .

Judicial review: An evaluation ..

B Documents relating to diplomatic affairs ..

9 MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS ..

A. Statutory privilege ..

Position in England ..

Position in.the United States ..

Position in India ..

Waiver and secrecy statutes ..

Conclusion ..

B. Information as property ..

C. Natural justice and right to know .. Conclusion ..

D. Employees‘ and right to information ..

Position in India ..

Conclusion ..

E. Ombudsman and disclosure of records ..

State officials or bodies ..

H. Press and peoples right to know ..

I. Discovery ..

Experience ..

J. Section 76, Evidence Act ..

Public document ..

The right to inspection ..

Destruction of records ..

ll CONCLUSIONS .. APPENDIX .. TABLE OF CASES .. BIBLIOGRAPHY ..

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