Anthropology and Its role in Public Health

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Anthropology and Its role in Public Health

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

What Is Anthropology

Approaches To Anthropology Fields of Anthropology

Physical Anthropology

Cultural Anthropology

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

Cultural Anthropology

Application of Anthropology in Medicine and Dentistry

Why Important For Public Health Summary

Conclusion References

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What is Anthropology?

Anthropology is the study of humans, past and present. To understand the full sweep and complexity of cultures

across all of human history, anthropology draws and builds upon knowledge from the social and biological sciences as well as the humanities and physical sciences. A central concern of anthropologists is the application of knowledge to the solution of human problems.

Ember Carol R., Ember Melvin, Anthropology, 4th Ed. 2000, Prentice Hall.

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Anthropologists in the United States have been trained in one of four areas: socio-cultural anthropology, biological/

physical anthropology, archaeology, and linguistics.

Anthropologists often integrate the perspectives of

several of these areas into their research, teaching, and professional lives.

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-

Kant deﬁned Anthropology as “the history of the human soul and human anatomy”.

Anthropology is said to be the science of “Man in His Totality”

Study of humans in all places and at all times. It is the branch of natural history and deals with man and the races of mankind. (Hadden ,1934)

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It studies man on any part of the earth; irrespective of whether he is savage or civilized.

"The purpose of anthropology as said by, (Anthropologist Ruth Benedict) is to make the world safe for human

differences."

One of the goals of anthropology is to promote understanding among peoples.

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It is a search, an

investigation into what we are now, from where we came, and how we

came and how we got to

be what we are today.

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Approaches To Anthropology

Principally in the United States, anthropology is often deﬁned as being "Holistic" and based on a "four-ﬁeld"

approach. It takes a four-ﬁeld approach to anthropology that encompasses-

Physical anthropology

Cultural anthropology or Social anthropology Archaeology

Linguistics

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Fields of Anthropology

A) Physical Anthropology

B) Cultural Anthropology

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A)

•

• PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY.

It is the study of people from a biological perspective - focuses on the place of man in nature.

It emerged as a search into the ancestry,

development, genetic, and other characteristics

of the human species.

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Areas of interest:

Evolution And Human Origins Human variation

Primatology

Dental anthropology Forensic anthropology

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B) CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

It deals with the emergence and development of man as artiﬁcer and his social evolution.

It has following branches:

1. Social anthropology 2. Archaeology

3. Linguistic anthropology 4. Ethnology

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ARCHAEOLOGY E T

H N O L

O G Y

L I

N G U I

S T I C

S SOCIAL/CULTURAL

ANTHROPOLOGY

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Social Anthropology

Social anthropology is the branch of anthropology that

studies how currently living human beings behave in social groups.

It is the branch of anthropology in which "sociality" is the central concept and which focuses on the study of social statuses and roles, groups, institutions, and the relations among them.

Scupin Raymonds, Cultural Anthropology, A global Perspective, 4th Ed.,2000.

Prentice Hall.

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It investigates often through long term, intensive ﬁeld studies the social organization of a particular group of

people: their customs, economic, political organization, law and conﬂict resolution, patterns of consumption and

exchange, kinship and family structure, gender relations, childrearing and socialization, religion.

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Archaeology Archaeology

The study of human cultures and behavior through material remains.

It is the scientiﬁc study of past human culture and behavior, from the origins of humans to the present.

Archaeologists primarily study material culture, not fossils .

It studies past human behavior through the examination of material remains of previous human societies.

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These remains include food remains, the ruins of buildings, and human artifacts—items such as tools, pottery, and jewelry.

From their studies, archaeologists attempt to reconstruct past ways of life.

A theory or picture is developed from the physical evidence - How people live their daily life, how people

understand the world around them, how they adapt to the surrounding environment, how and why cultures change.

Scupin Raymonds, Cultural Anthropology, A global Perspective, 4th Ed.,2000.

Prentice Hall.

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Linguistics

The discipline that studies speech and language.

Linguistic anthropology studies contemporary human languages as well as ones from the past.

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Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language (i.e., do not split inﬁnitives).

Anthropologists regard language as 'conservative'. It is retained by people.

Linguistics is a social science that shares common ground with other social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, sociology and archaeology.

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ETHNOLOGY

The study of many cultures

from a comparative perspective.

The intensive study of a single culture is called an Ethnography.

Jan Savage; Ethnography And Health Care: British Medical Journal 2000; 321; 1400-402

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It is the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the origins, distribution, technology, religion,

language, and social structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national divisions of humanity.

Compared to Ethnography, which is the study of single groups through direct contact with the culture, Ethnology takes the research that ethnographers have compiled and then compares and contrasts different cultures.

Jan Savage; Ethnography And Health Care: British Medical Journal 2000;

321; 1400-402

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An ethnographic approach usually incorporates a range of methods and can combine qualitative and quantitative data.

Ethnography has its earliest roots in social

anthropology, which traditionally focused on small

scale communities that were thought to share culturally speciﬁc beliefs and practices.

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Possible criteria for assessing Ethnographic Research

The consistency of claims are compared with empirical data.

The credibility of the account to readers and those studied.

The extent to which ﬁndings have relevance to those in similar settings.

The extent to which the inﬂuence of the research

design and strategy on ﬁndings is considered.Otto Von Mering And Leonard Kasdan; Anthropology And The Behavioral And Health Sciences: Vol. 60, No. 12. American Journal Of Public Health.

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CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

It is the branch of anthropology that has developed and promoted "

culture" as a meaningful scientiﬁc concept, studied cultural variation among humans, and examined the impact of global economic and

political processes on local cultural realities.

It seeks and describes general understandings about human

“customs” or “cultural behavior”.

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Helps to understand human social organization and culture.

One of the ﬁve social sciences.

Deals with man’s behavior and products.

It’s main theme is

CULTURE

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CULTURE

Culture is ‘learned, non-random, systematic behavior and knowledge that is transmitted from Person to

Person and from Generation to Generation.’

It changes through time and is main contributor to human adaptability.

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Culture is learned…..

Not biologically determined – coded by hereditary material.

Survival strategies and other

behaviors and thoughts are learned from parents, other relatives,

teachers, friends, peers.

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Culture is non-random….

Speciﬁc actions and thoughts are usually the same in similar situation.

Speciﬁc behavior patterns in societies in a particular situation.

‘ Most frequent behavior that the members of a group show in a given situation

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Culture is patterned….

It is systematic – one aspect of behavior is related to all others.

A System is a collection of parts that are

interrelated so that a change in any one part brings about speciﬁc changes in others.

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Culture is transmittable….

It spreads - Information is learned, stored in the cortex, interpreted and transmitted to the people.

Knowledge builds on information from past generations.

A present culture is a sum of past and present.

POOL OF SHARED INFORMATION

– distinguishes man from other animals.

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Importance of Culture??

Anthropologists have also pointed out that through culture people can adapt to their environment in non- genetic ways, so people living in different environments will often have different cultures.

Much of anthropological theory has originated in an appreciation of interest in the tension between the local (particular cultures) and the global environment(a

universal human nature, or the web of connections between people in distinct places/circumstances).

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CULTURAL EVOLUTION

Culture is believed to date back at least to the origin of the earliest stone tools, some 2.5 million years ago.

As hominids appear closer to us in time, the evidence for culture increases.

This is evident as stone tools became more complex, ﬁre are harnessed, and as hominids spread out of Africa into more challenging environments.

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With the arrival of modern humans about 40,000 years ago, the pace of cultural evolution overtook that of

biological evolution.

With domestication, metallurgy, and population growth, the rate of culture change has steadily increased at an

exponential rate.

The pace of cultural change today is now driven by technology. The Internet, personal computers, and compact discs were undreamed of just a couple decades ago.

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Subﬁelds of anthropology are not mutually exclusive.

In practice, they tend to overlap a good deal.

That overlap or sharing is best illustrated by a new, emerging ﬁeld, that of medical anthropology.

It can best be described as the study of the interaction between culture, health, and disease. In anthropology, it can be called Biocultural Evolution.

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The Components of Culture

Two of the most basic components are material and nonmaterial culture.

Material culture consists of the physical products of human society (ranging from weapons to clothing styles)

Nonmaterial culture refers to the intangible products of human society (values, beliefs, and norms).

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VALUES

Values are the standards by which members of a society deﬁne what is good or bad, holy or unholy,

beautiful or ugly. They are assumptions that are widely shared within the society.

Values are a central aspect of the nonmaterial culture of a society and are important because they inﬂuence the behavior of the members of a society.

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The predominant values in the United States include individual achievement and success, efﬁciency, progress, material comfort, equality, freedom, science, rationality, nationalism, and democracy, along with many other

assumptions (Williams, 1970; Bellah et al., 1985).

American society tends to emphasize individualism and self-reliance, other societies, such as Japan, India and Asian countries stress cooperation and community interest instead.

Otto Von Mering And Leonard Kasdan; Anthropology And The Behavioral And Health Sciences: Vol. 60, No. 12. American Journal Of Public Health.

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BELIEFS

Beliefs are cultural conventions that concern true or false assumptions, speciﬁc descriptions of the nature of the universe and humanity's place in it.

Values are generalized notions of what is good and bad;

beliefs are more speciﬁc and, in form at least, have more content. "Education is good" is a fundamental value .

Whereas "grading is the best way to evaluate students"

is a belief that reﬂects assumptions about the most

appropriate way to determine educational achievement.

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Most people in a given society assume that their beliefs are rational and ﬁrmly grounded in common sense.

However, commonsense beliefs may not necessarily be scientiﬁcally valid.

For example, our commonsense understandings may lead us to conclude that the earth is ﬂat and stationary. When we look around us, the plane of the earth looks ﬂat, and we don't feel as if the earth is rotating around the sun. Yet our commonsense beliefs about these notions are

contradicted by the knowledge gained by the scientiﬁc method.

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Many anthropologists refer to the worldview of a particular society.

A worldview consists of various beliefs about the

nature of reality and provides people with a more or less consistent orientation toward the world. Worldviews

help people interpret and understand the reality surrounding them.

Otto Von Mering And Leonard Kasdan; Anthropology And The Behavioral Health Sciences: Vol. 60, No. 12. American Journal Of Public Health.And

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In some societies such as the traditional Azande of East Africa or the Navajo Indians of the Southwest region of the United States, witchcraft is believed to cause illnesses in some unfortunate individuals.

In other societies, such as that of Canada, illness is

diagnosed by medical doctors using the scientiﬁc method, and the causes of illness are attributed to viruses, bacteria, or other material forces.

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Some beliefs may be combined into an ideology.

An ideology consists of cultural symbols and beliefs that reﬂect and support the interests of speciﬁc groups within society (Yengoyan, 1986).

Particular groups promote ideologies for their own ends as a means of maintaining and justifying economic and

political authority.

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Different economic and political systems-capitalism, socialism, communism, democratic institutions, and

totalitarian governments are based on differing ideologies.

For example, capitalist societies maintain that individuals should be rewarded monetarily based on their own self-

interest. In contrast, socialist societies emphasize the well- being of the community or society over individual self

interest.

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In some societies, especially complex societies with many different groups, an ideology may produce

cultural hegemony, the ideological control by one dominant group over beliefs and values.

For example, one dominant ethnic group may impose its cultural beliefs on subordinate groups.

In many areas of the world, minority groups were often forced to accept the ideologies of the

economically and politically dominant groups.

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Misbelieve:- Another community people don’t take

injection from any dentist. (i.e. belonging and faith healing) .

OTHER BELIEVES

Some people believe that if they undergo family

planning operation like vasectomy they will get nervous weakness.

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One of the popular belief in some communities is that children are “God given gifts”. They are reluctant to

undergo family planning methods.

Some religious beliefs are so strong that if they get some serious and debilitating disease, instead of

consulting a Doctor they will go to a Witch Doctor or

Black Magician for their treatment, which are supposed to drive away the evil forces causing the disease.

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NORMS

Norms a society's rules of right and wrong behavior are another aspect of nonmaterial culture.

Norms are shared rules or guidelines that deﬁne how people "ought" to behave under certain circumstances.

Norms are generally connected to the values, beliefs, worldviews, and ideologies of a society.

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For example, we have seen that in American culture individualism is a basic value that is reﬂected in the

prevailing worldview. Individuals are admonished to work for their own self-interest and not to become a burden to their families or community. Older Americans, if self-

sufﬁcient, are not supposed to live with their children.

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Likewise, self-sufﬁcient young adults beyond a certain age are not supposed to live with their parents.

These norms that reﬂect the value of individualism

contrast with the norms existing in many other societies.

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In many agricultural societies it would be immoral to allow aging parents to live outside the family. In these

societies the family is a moral community that should not be separated.

Rather than individualism, these norms emphasize communal responsibility within the family unit. Some

anthropologists use the term ethos to refer to the socially acceptable norms within a society (Geertz, 1973).

Otto Von Mering And Leonard Kasdan; Anthropology And The Behavioral

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TABOOS

The term Taboos means misconcepts or misbelieve. Any of the negative traditions and behaviors generally regarded as harmful to social welfare.

Taboos:- Jains of North India, consider taking an injection as taboo, so strong is their belief that they go to the extent of getting a tooth extracted without an local anaesthetic injection.

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Fasting:- People of one particular community in India during fasting time does not get extraction done as

analgesia is to be given and at the same time scaling and polishing is also not allowed by them as bleeding can

occur and it make be swallowed also e.g. muslim.

Sex:- Females don’t go to male dentist for treatment.

Caste:- People of upper casts don’t go to lower cast

doctor’s for treatment thinking that their religion will be spoiled.

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A lot of people who are required to undergo extraction of the teeth are reluctant to undergo treatment because they are afraid that they will loose their eye sight.

Some people who came to the dentist with the

complaint of decayed teeth demand that the dentist

should show worms from their teeth because they believe that dental decay is caused by worms.

Cleft lip and palate due to sin in previous birth.

If scaling is done, the tooth may become loose.

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Some people believe that if the child was born with neonatal teeth, it is a danger to be grand parents.

When deciduous teeth exfoliate children as well as their parents believe that if they keep the exfoliate teeth under a rock or throw on top of the roof they will get teeth as

strong as stone. And they also believe that if they keep their exfoliated teeth in a rat hole they will get teeth as strong and sharp as rat teeth.

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APPLICATION OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Used for discovering and removing causes of labor management frictions in industry, securing fair

employment practices, and better organizing resettlement projects.

Facilitating and accelerating the adjustment of peasants or tribal populations in new conditions.

Contributes to the solution of many medical and legal problems.

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MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

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The most important field of interest in the public health is medical anthropology, a field that first

emerged as a coherent sub-discipline in the 1950s and has rapidly grown to become one of the largest areas of research and practice within anthropology.

It is a subﬁeld of social and cultural anthropology.

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It considers that the human body is a complex system that is subject to a multiplicity of environmental assaults as well as to the deterioration that inevitably encompasses aging.

The processes of the human body are not only shaped by the physiological variables but also mediated by the culture and social variables.

Medical anthropology has drawn from a variety of

theoretical perspectives within anthropological theory and social scientiﬁc theory.

Introduction To Medical Anthropology www.Uic.Edu/Classes/Osci/Osci590.

Last accessed on 24th Jan 2012.

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Signiﬁcance of Anthropology in Dentistry

Crown wear and dental pathology give clues to dietary and

cultural behavior.

Gross and microscopic defect analyses reﬂect disease and dietary stress

Iscan, M. 'The Emergence Of Dental Anthropology' Amer J Phys Anthrop.

78:1 (1989).

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Intentional cultural modiﬁcations of teeth (dental

scariﬁcation) reﬂect society and culture of people, both present and past.

The comparative anatomy of teeth provides crucial

evidence for systematic (classiﬁcation) and determining biological relatedness.

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WHY IMPORTANT FOR Public Health?

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Public health is often described as having the population or community as its patient, in contrast to the individual- level focus of clinical medicine. This focus on community creates a natural foundation for partnership between

public health and anthropology, which takes as its primary focus the study of people in groups, and especially in local communities.

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Anthropology has four major subﬁelds: cultural anthropology, physical or biological anthropology,

archeology, and linguistics. Crosscutting the subﬁelds are several sub-disciplinary foci that have much to contribute to the achievement of public health objectives.

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The most important for public health is medical

anthropology, a ﬁeld that ﬁrst emerged as a coherent sub- discipline in the 1950s and has rapidly grown to become one of the largest areas of research and practice within anthropology.

Anthropology has also made important methodological

contributions to public health, especially with regard to the use of ethnography for the systematic collection of ﬁeld

data; qualitative methods for the collection and analysis of descriptive, interpretative, and formative data; and the

integration of qualitative and quantitative approaches.

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THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS

As with anthropology and public health, the basic unit of study in ecology is the population. The medical-

ecological approach links biomedicine with biological and cultural anthropology, resulting in important contributions to understanding health and disease as dynamic, adaptive, population-based processes. The ecological model builds on three key assumptions:

1) There are no single causes of disease; rather, disease is ultimately due to a chain of factors related to ecosystem imbalances.

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2) Health and disease are part of a set of physical,

biological, and cultural subsystems that continually affect one another.

3) The ecological model provides a framework for the study of health in an environmental context, but it does not specify what factors maintain health within any given local system.

Http://Www.Leeds.Ac.Uk . Last accessed on 24^th Jan 2012

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Critical medical anthropology raises important questions about the impact of global political and economic

structures and processes on health and disease. It

expands the context within which medical anthropology operates and brings it closer to the perspective of public health practice by explicitly seeking to contribute to the creation of global health systems that "serve the people”.

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The individual level of patient experience has been the focus of interpretative anthropology approaches.

A. Kleinman (1997) introduced the cultural interpretative model to provide a means of balancing the externalized, objective view of disease with the subjective experience of illness.

Kleinman, A. (1997). Writing at the Margin: Discourse Between Anthropology and Medicine.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

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M. Lock and N. Scheper-Hughes (1990), in turn,

developed the concept of "sufferer experience" as an important dimension to the study of health. They

developed a metaphorical framework of "the three

bodies" to facilitate understanding of the multiple layers of health and illness.

Lock, M., and Scheper-Hughes, N. (1990). "A Critical-Interpretive Approach in Medical Anthropology: Rituals and Routines of Discipline and Dissent."

In Medical Anthropology: Contemporary Theory and Method, eds.T. M.

Johnson and C. F. Sargent. New York: Praeger.

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M. Konner (1993) provides a global overview of the many political and economic factors that impact the way doctors are trained and socialized, as well as how they shape the way medical care is enacted in clinics and hospitals.

Konner, M. (1993). Medicine at the Crossroads: The Crisis in Health Care. New York: Pantheon Books.

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Farmer (1999) examines inequalities in the distribution and outcome of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, AIDS (acquired immunodeﬁciency syndrome), ebola, and malaria, as well as social responses such as quarantine and accusations of sorcery that often are associated with infectious diseases.

Farmer, P. (1999). Infections and Inequalities: The Modern Plagues. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press

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Singer coined the term “Syndemic" to describe the

synergistic interaction of social factors, especially local and global inequities, with the epidemiological risk factors for HIV (human immunodeﬁciency virus), TB, hepatitis, and substance abuse. The syndemic model provides an

important intermediate model that frames the investigation of community-level outcomes in terms of individual

behaviour, local processes, and higher level processes.

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This model raises difﬁcult questions, and it challenges public health to address the root causes of health

disparities. By introducing a multilevel, dynamic

epidemiological perspective, it points toward the need to develop and evaluate systems and community-level

interventions that target linked processes.

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METHODOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS

The application of anthropological methods to public health problems has been another important area of contribution. The use of systematic, descriptive, and qualitative methods has proven effective in identifying context-speciﬁc factors that contribute to health and disease outcomes.

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Another important methodological contribution is the use of triangulation, or the systematic application of multiple methods in order to reduce bias in situations where

controlled comparison is not feasible. For example, anthropologists typically use natural observation of

behaviour along with self-report data and descriptions of normative expectations to obtain highly accurate

descriptions of events and social relationships.

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The development of rapid assessment techniques,

variously called rapid appraisal, rapid assessment, and rapid rural appraisal, is a prime example of

anthropological contributions to the public health methodological tool kit.

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As described by J. Beebe (1995) this is a multidisciplinary team-based approach designed to generate reasonably valid, reliable, and qualitative results within a short time frame. Rapid assessments can provide the contextual information needed to design in-depth community-level and community-based public health research and to guide decisions about implementing programs in local settings.

Beebe, J. (1995). "Basic Concepts and Techniques of Rapid Appraisal."

Human Organization54:42–51.

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J. A. Trostle and J. Sommerfeld (1996) describe a number of mutual methodological beneﬁts to be gained from

combining anthropological and epidemiological approaches, including:

Anthropological knowledge of cross-cultural variability can be used to improve the development and

measurement of epidemiologic variables.

Research results can be communicated more effectively to policymakers and to a public audience when both

anthropological and epidemiological descriptions are employed.Trostle, J. A., and Sommerfeld, J. (1996). "Medical Anthropology and

Epidemiology." Annual Review of Anthropology 25:253-74.

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Conceptual and experimental work can be undertaken to determine the best measures of complex cultural and behavioural variables.

Ethnographic and epidemiological information can be used to design health surveillance systems that return data to communities in more comprehensible forms, creating new meanings for the "popular epidemiology."

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TRANSLATING KNOWLEDGE INTO ACTION

Anthropological theory and methods have much to offer public health in the area of translating public health

knowledge into effective action. Contributions range from basic issues of cultural sensitivity to enhance the

acceptability and effectiveness of proven practices in clinic settings to the development of policy for the

provision of complex treatment regimens for emerging

epidemics under conditions of inequity in access to health care. As such, anthropologists are asking questions about the root causes of public health's toughest problems.

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SUMMARY

1.

2.

Emphasis on methods in health related qualitative

research obscures the value of substantive knowledge and theoretical concepts based in some social sciences.

Anthropology views the familiar knowledge through focusing on classiﬁcation and on understanding

rationality in social and cultural context.

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3. It highlights the value of data gathered informally and the differences between what people say, think, and do.

4. Its emphasis on empirical particularly helps to avoid inaccurate generalizations and their potentially

problematic applications.

5. Truly multidisciplinary research needs to incorporate the conceptual frameworks and knowledge bases of participating disciplines.

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CONCLUSION

Anthropology has its roots in a Western fascination with the “exotic” and the associated attempts to make the strange comprehensible.

Anthropologists working in health settings today question the apparently familiar so that health issues may be better understood and health outcomes

improved. This is a key promise of qualitative research generally for health professionals.

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Anthropology can offer relevant conceptual

frameworks, substantive knowledge, and methodological insights.

These are essential for truly multidisciplinary research, which extends beyond selective incorporation of speciﬁc methods to encompass research conceptualization and theoretical synthesis.

Funding sources, institutional support, and publication requirements should reﬂect this.

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REFERENCES



Ember Carol R., Ember Melvin, Anthropology, 4th Ed.

2000, Prentice Hall.

Scupin Raymonds, Cultural Anthropology, A global Perspective, 4th Ed.,2000. Prentice Hall.

Park K., Park’s Textbook of Preventive and Social

Medicine, 19^th edition 2007, M/S Banarsidas Bhanot.

Hiremeth SS, Textbook of Preventive and Community Dentistry, 1^st Ed.2007, Elsevier.

Peter Soben, Essentials of Preventive and Community Dentistry, 3^rd Ed.2007, Arya (Medi) Publishing House.

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

Tax S. Anthropology Today.1962.82-3.

Otto Von Mering And Leonard Kasdan; Anthropology And The Behavioral And Health Sciences: Vol. 60, No.

12. American Journal Of Public Health.

Jan Savage; Ethnography And Health Care: British Medical Journal 2000; 321; 1400-402

Iscan, M. 'The Emergence Of Dental Anthropology' Amer J Phys Anthrop. 78:1 (1989).

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

Introduction To Anthropology www.Uic.Edu/Classes/

Osci/Osci590. Last accessed on 24th Jan 2012.

Http://Www.Leeds.Ac.Uk . Last accessed on 24^th Jan 2012

Kleinman, A. (1997). Writing at the Margin: Discourse Between Anthropology and Medicine.Berkeley, CA:

University

of California Press.

Lock, M., and Scheper-Hughes, N. (1990). "A Critical- Interpretive Approach in Medical Anthropology: Rituals and

Routines of Discipline and Dissent." In Medical

Anthropology: Contemporary Theory and Method, eds.T.

M.

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

Konner, M. (1993). Medicine at the Crossroads: The Crisis in Health Care. New York: Pantheon Books.

Farmer, P. (1999). Infections and Inequalities: The

Modern Plagues. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Beebe, J. (1995). "Basic Concepts and Techniques of Rapid Appraisal." Human Organization54:42–51.

Trostle, J. A., and Sommerfeld, J. (1996). "Medical Anthropology and Epidemiology." Annual Review of Anthropology 25:253-74.

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Anthropology and Its role in Public Health