INDIGENOUS GROUP: A STUDY THROUGH SPATIAL PERSPECTIVE

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JETIR1903176 Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research (JETIR) www.jetir.org 475

INDIGENOUS GROUP: A STUDY THROUGH SPATIAL PERSPECTIVE

Mohd Firoz Ahamed Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh, U.P, 201002

Background

This study aims to investigate the spatiality of indigenous group. The theme of this paper is construction of indigenous space through daily life geography of indigenous communities. Indigenous communities are always been at central place in the academic discourse of social sciences specially anthropology, sociology, political sciences etc. There are set of methods and approaches to discuss the indigenous communities.

Though, each discipline has a definite ways of enquiry to study indigenous group. Each discipline focuses a definite dimension and aspect of indigenous communities based on their purpose and aims of observation.

This study is however, different to other research inquiries due to its interdisciplinary ways of analysis.

Study is not only restricted to the political geographic perspective but it draws its subject matter from humanistic geography, sociology, ethnography, philosophy and political science. However, the major aim of this work is to see the “indigenous spatiality” constructed at their definite place of living. So, It has oriented towards applying “spatial behavioral” notion to case studies. With these perspectives, the conceptual organization of “space” was observed to seek the answer of what space really means? How it produces?

How indigenous spaces are generated? Why multinational corporations and economic agencies perceive indigenous places? What are the major responses of indigenous communities towards this economic aggression?

Research Hypothesis

Though, there have been certain assumptions which motivated to work upon this book that is related to indigenous spaces. It needed verification whether these assumptions are right or wrong. The hypothesis lies in this work revolved around indigenous spatiality which seems to be deeply rooted in their places and demarcated as a product of relative isolation, exclusion, emotional attachment to the land, animism and primitive economies as socio-economic variables. However, it has also been assumed that politics of resource extraction and process of economic utilization of natural resources from indigenous spaces like Niyamgiri Hills and Maranhao Rain forests are the major cause for degradation of indigenous communities and their livelihood. So, the level of interaction between indigenous communities with non indigenous population is shaped by their traditional living and attachment to their space. The responses of indigenous communities against economic instruments in the form of resistance are due to their emotional attachment to their places and a unique spatial meaning associated to them.

Research Questions

At subjective level, it can be asked, how indigenous communities produce their spaces or construct their spatiality? In the way to answer these certain questions, variety of questions further extended even what the space is? For indigenous communities, how meaning of space shaped? Here research is further problematized from indigenous communities who experiences invasion from global capital as well as notions shaped by economic development logic. Resistances and movement from indigenous group shows that meaning of place and spatiality of indigenous group is processed by different variants which may be differing to the non indigenous perspective. Why this movement and resistance against multinational

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corporations have taken place? The foremost example was Dongaria khond against Vedanta group. As well as Awa community were struggling in the Maranhao rainforests. From these two indigenous case studies, an analogy has been drawn that these communities don’t wish to allow economic extraction to their places but why? Then it was assumed that they are in fear to be displaced either or they are so attached to their place and a sense of sacredness suggests them to resist. They feel insecure to their livelihood. But an assumption was something more that there may be something else in that feeling?

For research inquiry of these questions, a set of method has been adapted. Theoretical and qualitative method was adapted to observe the different perspectives on space and its conceptual structure. The evolution of space studies from Greek to the post modern era represented a journey of conceptual evolution of space study from geometric formulation to the deconstruction and its process form. In geographical thought space study has adapted the route from Greek geographical analysis to the post modern perspectives.

Since, very beginning, living beings have felt an attachment to their land and places where they live, grew and developed. The expression of feelings of attachment of animals is in their own way which is not widely recognized.

However, human beings have an advantage to express their emotions of attachment to their specific land and places.

This is a very common “human perception” to observe them, their surrounding their place, space and region.

The first expression of their emotions is generally framed at imaginary level. A cognitive space on the mental image of an individual is framed with the process of living environment. Socio-cultural expression of their spatial unit and the identities of distinctness with difference to other segmental territorial units produce a regional and spatial pool among people. The characteristics of identities related to space vary from personal space to social space. Enlarging the scale we get an individual’s own space termed as personal space, individual’s birth place, place of education, place of development etc. These groups occupied their places in forest in general. The major work is shifting cultivation along with hunting and food gathering. However, some attempt has been made to end this type of cultivation with demarcation and reservation of forested area. Though, later administration has realized that force cannot work to make them distant from those activities which are closely related with the custom which were historically emerged. Even they were not aware with these restrictions because they cannot perceive life without these livelihood activities (Rath: 2004).

Indigenous Group: Space Construction

It was necessary to inquire the spaces of indigenous group which they construct through their own living experiences. then it could be either verified our assumptions that Indigenous communities construct their spaces and emotionally attached to their place in the form of becoming and modern encroachment has challenged their existence which is deeply rooted in there spatiality. At the first stand the question about what space is answered through various perspectives (Ipsia: 2006)

The personality of space is shaped by the different perspectives of its studies. Approaches which focus upon space is varied from scholars own specific motive and objective of studies. Among the perspective on space, this research is confined to the scholars like David Harvey and Henri Lefebvre, Tuan etc. postmodern tendency, Humanistic and radical geography approaches like Tuan, Soja and Massey has also presented the study of space. The Marxist orientation on space is generally related to political economy and social activities in the daily life experiences evolved with changes in means and mode of production.

David Harvey in his various studies has constructed the space as contained not as container. The level of production and its relation to social environmental has greater linkages in space formation in this opinion.

Lefebvre seems to be more profound scholar in Space studies. The enquiry of Lefebvre is in broader dimension where he observed space is the socially produce. It does not lie in emptiness. Some time he also explained the “social is spatially constructed”. We cannot see space in isolation as an empty area, region or place. It can be observed in the relational environment. Social relations, interaction, daily life experiences are the major attributes of space. It has entity in mental images in the abstract, cognitive level (Ahamed:

2017).

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Economic Development and Indigenous group

The spatiality of Indigenous communities is in danger. From the basic livelihood issues and their dependency over the basic surrounding resources has experienced the notion of encroachment. Politics and power applied at these places has multi level impact upon these groups. Resources which are judiciously utilized by indigenous communities have been economized in this era of globalization. Global capital is invested in the profit generated motives. The value of land and resources which lie in the indigenous places are valued in commercial terms. In that aspect Indigenous communities has also tried to resist these forces.

The responses from the Indigenous communities vary with their different places of emergence. The common trait which we find in this politics is resistance and struggle from the indigenous side for the protection of their spatiality and rights on land and resources. The politics of resource extraction and the indigenous responses at both the places has recognized the value of Indigenous intimacy to the forests. The appropriation of mineral resources by Multinational Corporation for example Vedanta and others may have economic value but the indigenous knowledge is based upon sustainability upon habitat and ultimately living system.

Modern forces of economy and science and technology and their flow in indigenous spaces have somehow tried to modify the spatial structure and formation of indigenous spaces. The politics of economic utility of the resources lies in place of indigenous communities has negatively affected the environment and symbiosis of indigenous spaces with nature. There is not a consensus among the scholars on perceptions of development and indigenous rights. A capitalists and neo-liberal perspectives of development argue the economic growth and industrial development with positive treatment of the subaltern and deprived class is necessary for the overall development of human society and regional development (Ahamed: 2017) In their notion of development, theoretically they claim the overall social well-being of human society. These projects of economic development has been discussed and debated at United Nations Permanent forum on indigenous issues and commented in the way as “development aggressions” (IWGIA: 2010). However,

“Sustainable Development” as a concept came with United Nations conventions (UN: 1987, 2011). This report expresses the human economic growth with conservation of resources for future generation. This report has been criticized by various scholars. Stenius (2011) in his research explains that Sustainable development report has taken for granted that poverty can only be reduced by capitalism.

Conclusion

In the construction of Indigenous spaces, the spatiality of Indigenous community which emerges due to the uniqueness in living experiences, isolated places, intimate relation to their place etc are covered in the process form. The indigenous is widely contested in academics and in the perspective of modern nation- state. Many countries have pointed out the various groups as indigenous communities with respect to the living environment and their historical experiences of encroachment, incursion and exploitation to them by modern colonizers. Indigenous space is generated from the mental-imaginary construction of indigenous communities and their interaction to their nature and isolated zone. The lived experience of these communities has caused a distinct spatiality. The interaction to the external and internal phenomenon may be central to the experiences. In this purview indigenous spaces could be derived and demarcate due to the interaction of their internal feelings emerged with their interaction to external environment. A complete sense of indigenous spaces emerged which could be further analyzed on the bases of specific lived experiences of indigenous communities in relative isolation. The Level of consciousness and awareness as well as practice and activities of indigenous communities have impact on their space and its formation.

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International Journal of Geography, Geoinformatics & Geographic Information Science (ISSN 2576-0068)

Volume 1, Issue 1, August 2019 Pages: 11-19

Date of Publication: 05-Aug-2019

Geo-politics in Indian Ocean and threat to maintenance of Peace in Asia Author: Nizamuddin Khan, Iftekhar Ahemmed, Mohd Firoz Ahamed

Category: Geography

Abstract:

The world’s third largest ocean, Indian Ocean, has been always an important strategic, economic, social and political space for global interaction among world powers. The power and significance of this geographical marine region had been well recognised by Mahan, Mackinder and Spykmen during first half of the 20^th century. Colonial era after 15^th century was known for Indian Ocean struggles and conflicts among

colonisers for controlling the trade and political supremacy. It is a region of several unexploited lands. The sea route is a vital link between the Eastern and the Western part of the world. The region has also tremendous amount of valuable unexploited resources in its beds which attract several littoral countries. The surrounding countries of its rim are of mostly Islamic nations and two giant countries of nuclear power. The increasing influence and intervention of China republic through investment in port development in various countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan, Djibouti and Maldives has presented a challenge and conflicts in peace-making efforts in the region. Silk marine trade route through this ocean is another game of Chinese effort to increase her influence in Africa, West Asia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and South East Asian countries.

80% of the oil trade through the sea route occurs through this ocean. Keeping in

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view the high level of strategic and peace maintaining significance in the area , the researchers aimed to explore the status of world power interference in disturbing and balancing geo political and economic power equilibrium in Asia especially in Littoral nations. The excess interference of China, an emerging world economy and its impact on socio economic and political stability especially between India and Pakistan are also explored. The level of relevance of containment policy of USA has been also analysed and searched out. Study is based fully on secondary source of data. Study revealed that the presence of China in Indian Ocean in different forms resulted in geo political unrest in the area. Geo political conflict in South China Sea including

Malacca striate, political instability in Maldives, Myanmar conflict and recently Indo Pak tension are some new examples of emergence of conflicts in Indian Ocean region.

Rim Land geo strategic model of Spykemen is fully relevant and applicable in contemporary world.

Keywords: Indian Ocean, Silk Road, Resource, Power conflicts Full Text:

1. Introduction and Background

In contemporary geopolitical scene, Oceanic sphere produces the larger domain of geopolitical and geo-strategic interests of nation-state. Ocean and politics are

generally presented the research areas of interests in international as well as regional studies. Oceanic bodies are the larger water masses that are considered as most important reservoir of non-utilized, stalk of various marine resources. Though, the location and a space of connectivity and interlink ages are the valued factors in terms of trade, navigation and communication. However, the location and geographical setting of oceanic bodies are the factors important in geostrategic perspective of location aspect of modern nation-state. As a frontier Oceanic bodies provides a specific construct in security. Geographically, Indian Ocean occupied a space nearly about 70,560,000 km² of area (Amante and Eakins, 2009; Eakins and Sharman, 2010).

It is the largest Ocean after the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean (Britannica, 2015). It has pertinent geo-politics and geo-strategic values due to its closest proximity to the colonial and post-colonial nations along with significant trade routes of the world (Bouchard and Crumplin, 2010). Indian Ocean is generally considered as an oceanic system that may have a rigid meaning. Though, it provides a sense of “inter-regional arena”. An inter-regional arena is located in mid between the general perceptions of world system and particular specific regions (Bose, 2006:27). In this respect, it has been argued about geographical cohesiveness of Indian Ocean Region. Australian Research Committee presented views against the single geographical entity because of its variations and cultural diversities of littoral states. However, Indian Ocean

provides the spaces of inter-linkages and interconnectedness of diversities of daily life

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geography at its coastal reach then it is significant to observe the Ocean as “cultural milieu” in compare to trading zone (Bose 2006: 272).

This research paper aims to investigate the geopolitical dimensions of security issues emerge at Indian Ocean Region. The organizational design of this research paper further extends its conceptual frame to observe the role of major power in structuring the regional geopolitics of Indian Ocean Region. However, the focus is more upon the threat caused by non-state actors in this ocean region.

1. Geopolitical Theories and Indian Ocean

With the emergence of notion to “Pivot to Asia”, Indian Ocean has now become an important geopolitical space in world affairs. Indian Ocean is shared by about 36 countries at its littoral zone and there are about 11 countries which are termed as umland countries of Indian Ocean. Indian Ocean occupied the hydrological space from Red Sea to the Strait of Malacca. Due to its huge inter-oceanic linkages it provides the connecting link to riparian countries. However, the “unified territorial connectivity” potential was realized or even actualized during the colonial period. The British Empire has utilized this territorial linkages capability of each colony under its empire. Though, economic and global trade importance of this Ocean was recorded since the Roman period but in terms of modern geopolitical utility of Indian Ocean has been observed during imperial and colonial phase.

There are certain correlation between Indian Ocean studies and development of Geopolitical ideas. Initial development of geopolitical ideas in academic debate is related with the dichotomy of Land power (Heart land) developed by Halford J.

Mackinder and Ocean Power by A.T. Mahan.

“From London to Colombo and Bombay is the naval high street of the British Empire.

At Gibraltar, Malta and Aden, where the waterways narrow and enemies might obstruct, are British Garrisons and naval stations. Even the Suez Canal is partly owned by the British government. A generation ago shares in that great undertaking were purchased by the United Kingdom for four million pounds sterling. Today [sic]

the British shares in the canal are valued at more than thirty millions sterling and each year a profit of more than a million pounds is paid into the British Exchequer.

There is a Garrissons of a British troops also in Egypt” (Mackinder 1910:2).

Mackinder himself focuses upon British importance and its control over the oceanic sea lane of communication in early 20^th century. He explains the British supremacy at sea in general and Indian Ocean in particular. He examined that the “Colombo port” is

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at centre of the communication linkages. This port provides the traffic from the cape in the south west, at south-east Australia in the way Singapore to Canada converges (Mackinder 1910: 2). British Empire was very much rich in view of Indian Ocean Region. A very little force was required in the region by Britain to flourish the British Empire in the region. In the above connotation, Mackinder has explained the

geopolitical supremacy of Britain over Indian space but he also presented a unity underlined at this space.

In terms, of traditional geopolitical Ideas, Indian Ocean is located at the important geographical space. In Mackinder’s view “Heartland” or the land power is considered at first tier Geostrategic region that is geostrategic fortress. It is occupied by Eurasian part of the planet. Though, the next level of geo-strategic power comes to the “inner crescent” that includes the rim countries like Germany, Austria, Turkey, India and China (Mackinder 1904: 436). Further, Mackinder claims that these inner crescent countries can involve as bridge ahead against the “pivot” regions.

“The threat of such an event should, therefore throw France into alliance with the over-sea powers, and France, Italy, Egypt, India and Korea would become so many bridgeheads where the outside navies would support armies to compel the pivot allies to deploy land forces and prevent them from concentrating their whole strengths on fleets (Mackinder 1904: 436).

Even the scholar like Nicholas Spykman’s and A. T Mahan has projected the sea power as instrument of geo-strategic gain in their geopolitical schema. Jawahar Lal Neru in his book Discovery of India has elaborated the value of Spykman’s idea of

“rim land” and reason to be united with the “heartland” has also been discussed.

Because, United States could avoid being strategically encircled (Nehru 1985: 539).

The geopolitical influence in the region was relatively less influential under academic publication just after Second World War. However, with the publication of

“Superpower Rivalry in the Indian Ocean: Indian and American Perspective” by Harrison Selig and Subrhamanyam in 1989. Major world events like end of Second World War, Indian independence, and evolution of Bipolar world system at global level has changed the geopolitical space and identity of Indian Ocean Region (Meena 2014). The mutual competition between USSR and USA was significantly developed to fill the void created due to withdrawal of British naval forces from east of Suez.

The need for advantageous strategic position for the regional influences was sought by two blocs. The important attributes of cold war geopolitics was to create alliances to the countries for gaining military bases to control the matters of other countries. In Indian Ocean, United States has got the Diego Garcia Islands from British power in 1973. On the other hand USSR has created the alliances with China, Vietnam and

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Burma for power balances with USA. Cold war politics, in this respect has highly influenced the Indian Ocean Region (Bouchard and Crumpling 2010: 28).

Though, India has late developed its maritime policy and Indian Ocean comes into strategic discussion point for Indian geopolitical consciousness. Even Strategically Indian Ocean consciousness was not developed in Indian strategic thought (Singh 1997:146). However, geopolitical theories like Mackinder, Spykman (Nehruvian thought), Admiral Mahan (Panikkar and Vaidya Thought) was in some extent observed in strategic tendencies of framing the policies for Indian Ocean. However, initial geopolitical and geostrategic vision with regard to Indian Ocean was imagined by Kavalam Panikkar. While discussing with the theory of A.T Mahan related with sea power in world system, Panikkar has elaborated the Indian Position on Indian Ocean (Panikar 1945)

1. Contemporary Geopolitical Issues of Indian Ocean

The Indian Ocean Region has been a significant platform of world geopolitics. Indian Ocean has been important not only in view of world trade and inter-connecting trade route historically but it provides the spaces of geopolitical influences of various regional and global actors. Recently, the major powers of the world like U.S.A and rising power like China has got the opportunities to influence the regional and sub regional political affairs in the region (Ahamed 2018). The littoral countries of Indian Ocean experience the larger geopolitical issues in security perspective also. Piracy, International terrorism, environmental degradation, Drug trafficking, ethnic disputes, bilateral conflicts etc are the dominating issues which has larger implication at global politics (ibid 2018).

Indian Ocean region in recent history witnesses many geopolitical events Islamic Revolution 1979, Soviet Occupation to Afghanistan, 1979-89, the second oil crisis 1979, Iran-Iraq War 1980-88. Since cold war period region has occupied the geostrategic importance. The arc of geostrategic instability (Cohen 2003: 43) was pointed out as Power, China, Oil and Islam ((Berlin 2006: 59).

For India most important geopolitical acceleration in the region was UNCLOS III, which has newly demarcated the definition of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) for Indian shoreline. Indian navy from that time onwards has got the favour to protect the offshore interests of its region (Rahn 2006: 19). However, Indian Ocean region has got a newer “social construct” as a “space of energy flow” (Chaturvedi 2008: 263) because of this region related to world’s important oil producing as well as consuming countries. The presence of China in the region is highly alarming for Indian security

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issues. China as geopolitical actor is raising its profile in the Indian Ocean, though Naval figures argued that the Mahan’s vision for sea power has been neglected (Scott 2006, 2008). Few Indian Ocean rim countries like Australian and India or major power (USA) and India has involved into joint military exercises. Since 2002, MALABAR exercise with India and U.S at the west Pacific has been observed the nature of power balancing amidst the security threat emerges due to Maritime Silk Route Initiative of China. There is multilateral nature of these naval and military exercises. Japan, Singapore, Australia provides a space for Indian interests in the region.

In the regional and world affairs of Indian Ocean Region, the role of major powers of the world is significant. Historically, the major power of the time has tried to

accelerate its influence in the region. Even during colonial period, it was the power supremacy of Britain that provided the space of instrumental influences within the Indian Ocean Region. However, after second world war, when bipolarity came into existence as world system the influences of U.S.A and U.S.S.R are recorded. The mutual rivalry and hostility of two power blocs of the world tried to establish and pursue the interests of each group. The policy of containment of USA has been active in the rim countries especially Middle East, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Myanmar and Vietnam to restrict the influence of Communist power.

However, Chinese interests to Indian Ocean are recorded in the view of its investment provided to rim land of Africa. China has given 3.2 billion U.S Dollar to Kenya for construction of 470 kilometre railway project to connect the Nairobi with Indian Ocean port city of Mombasa (). China has also invested in infrastructure and ports in country like Sri lanka, Maldives and Bangladesh. Though, United State and Australia Have involved into counter balancing of rising power China and its influence across the region. United States has invested as 113 billion dollar in the infrastructure projects in digital economy as well as in energy sector (Ahamed 2018)

The orientation of Australia’s foreign policy is related to the protection of geopolitical interests of Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) programme for regional, maritime security and International law of sea. There is a private environmental organization which is working upon environmental sustainability as well as protection of oceanic biodiversity.

The regional groups of Indian Ocean sharing countries most importantly BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multispectral Technical and Economic Cooperation) are recently involved into development of regional cohesion to produce the free trade areas for promotion of international trade. Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) with 21 member countries including Australia has negotiated the trade liberalization and regional security issues. These regional association and multilateral initiative of

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rim countries are highly influential in terms of development of regional peace and development in Indian Ocean Region (Ahamed 2019).

1. Conclusion

In nutshell, we can conclude this paper through research engagement. It has been observed that historically Indian Ocean Space has been a significant space of world geopolitics. Since Roman period, Indian Ocean region has occupied the world’s important trade route connecting the western world to the oriental societies. It has been the zone of territorial expansion and colonial connectedness. The Supremacy of British power in the Indian Ocean region can be clearly examined. After Second World War, and during the time of cold war the essence of bipolar competition is experienced in the Indian Ocean Region also. The rival powers under the leadership of USSR and U.S.A as power blocs struggled over security hegemony and regional influences in the riparian states of Indian Ocean Region. In this background the establishment of military base at Giedo Garcia can be cited. After British influence, and when the British geopolitics has minimal However, this region has presented the sea power essence and the Not only the regional actors but global power

Though, present geopolitics in the Indian Ocean are the product of the struggle of influence of regional and national interests clashes and bilateral issues of regional actors, Secondly, the utilization of conceptual frame of balance of power in persuasion to address the regional conflict. Influence of rising power China and its project

“Maritime Silk Route” as well as its investment in the port construction and other navigational project at Srilanka, African Nations and in the building project of littoral states. In terms of State actors, the role of U.S.A and U.DS.SR is also important in this sector. However, emergence of Non-state actors as threat for regional peace is another aspect of regional geopolitics in Indian Ocean. Issues of Terrorism, Drug Trafficking, Piracy, Environmental Degradation etc are the areas of concern. However, the

optimistic view from Australia and United states has encouraged India and its allies to be strategically engaged in the ocean with military exercises and counter balances of increasing influence of China in the region. Though Regional Association of rim countries like BIMSTEC and IORA has taken the multilateral platform for regional cohesion and trade linkages.

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