MARINE FISHERIES

(1)

ISSN 0254-380 X

MARINE FISHERIES

INFORMATION SERVICE

No. 162 tobei '--r, December 1999

I TECHNICAL ANI

<=l c - H EXTENSION SERIES

^ ' ^ ' M iAi±^ 4-lir^^-Mchl CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES ar^J^STT^ ^FTFSTPT RESEARCH INSTITUTE

c h l P c l H ,

^ T R T T

COCHIN, INDIA

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

(2)

T^ HllrWc|51 ^jrRT ^ : W^ MllcHlcft qT STraif^ 3?^^raFT HRUIWI ^ a r m l ^ , ^Tt^ 3EiW # ? J^rW

Hie Marine Fisheries Information Service : Technical and Extension Series envisages

dissemination of Information on marine fishery resoiorces based on research resiilts to the plarmers, industry and fish farmers, and transfer of technology from'laboratory to field.

• * - ' • ' • • -^

Abbreviation - Mar. Fish. Inft>r. Sew., T& E Ser., No. 162: C)ctober,November, December 1999

CONTENTS ^ f c f ^

• • — I I I . — • • • • I I I M • — • >ii. I. I • i i i n i M J i i • • ill • . — M i l • I l l - ••• ipiiriii II, i »^m,m„

^o^^ Article Title Pages

I I * ' I . I I I I I I 1 I I II I, .11 ,'" I I ' ! Mil

915 Coastal zone governance : Kerala in relation to national and international

situations 1

916 Larval rearing of seahorse Hippocampus kuda under laboratory conditions 23

917 Observations on spawning and larval rearing of clown fish Amphiprion sebae 25

918 A note on the scombroid fish Scomber Japonicus observed along the Indian coast.. 27

914 ? T ^ ^ STRR - T T ^ a f t T a T r R l ^ fMrRT? ^ ^ ^ . . . 28

915 H l ^ q ^ M^hli^H f g r ^ "^^W^ m a^gTMT HRf^frl^l A qT?R 37

916 g^IFFT^Sct ^Sill^hMi ^ m vafe^ST^ 3ft7 ft^^^ qTc?R. 39

917 w ^ rR qr f^wi^ qit ^fsii^^ ^ro^ mkr ^N)PI'^H- ^ f^w^ 4 i

Front cover photo : Adult sea horse in aquarium tank

Back cover photo : A record collection of 15 lakh pearl oyster from the 'Paar' off Tuticorin.

(3)

MARINE FISHERIES

INFORMATION SERVICE

*^i T T c T TECHNICAL AND f c ^ EXTENSION SERIES

^ ^ i | ^ M s O i m R ' f ^ c h l CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES a r ^ S T T T ^FTF^TFT RESEARCH INSTITUTE

^ r r f ^ F T , ^TR?T COCHIN, INDIA

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

(4)

9 1 5 COASTAL ZONE GOVERNANCE: KERALA IN RELATION TO NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL SITUATIONS

M. Oevaraj, N.G. Menon, V.K. Pillai and K. Balachandran

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin - 682 014, India

Introduction

Some of the leading coastal countries like Australia, China, France, Israel, J a p a n . New Zealand, Oman, Spain, Sri Lanka, Thailand.

Turkey, U.K., U.S.A a n d o t h e r s have t a k e n u r g e n t s t e p s for c o a s t a l zone m a n a g e m e n t following the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment a n d Development (UNCED) to meet their c o m m i t m e n t s to t h e s u s t a i n a b l e development of coastal a r e a s and the marine environment u n d e r the national Jurisdiction a s per C h a p t e r 17 of Agenda 2 1 of t h e above conference. As the coastal zone is generally b u s y w i t h m a n y e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s like agriculture, forestry, fisheries, t r a n s p o r t and manufacturing i n d u s t r i e s , it is necessary to a c c o r d p r i o r i t y to t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l resources a n d the coastal ecosystem to e n s u r e t h e i r s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t . Therefore, many coastal countries have evolved Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) plans. In m a n y c o u n t r i e s t h e coastal zone extends from the territorial limit (the wet side) to the tidally influenced h a b i t a t (the dry side).

This entire zone comprising the wetside a n d dry side is treated a s a single unit where the landward b o u n d a r i e s vary depending on the objectives and needs of the i s s u e s . Both the wet side a n d t h e dry side of t h i s zone are generally managed a n d governed by a single agency. India too h a s initiated a c t i o n s to exercise powers u n d e r Section 3(1) a n d 3(2) (v) of t h e E n v i r o n m e n t (Protection) Act, 1986 through a legal i n s t r u m e n t called the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification issued in 1991 by t h e M i n i s t r y of E n v i r o n m e n t a n d F o r e s t s (MOEF). This zone extends from the low tide Line (LTL) to a distance of 500 m a n d the landward side (including t h e e s t u a r i e s a n d backwaters) influenced by the tidal action. In this zone a s many a s 13 activities a n d processes are proposed to be prohibited and 4 of them regulated through the provisions of the CRZ Notification.

The CRZ is classified into 4 categories for the prohibition or control of various activities (Table 1 a n d 2). Subsequently, the Depart- m e n t of O c e a n D e v e l o p m e n t (DOD) of the government of India, after evaluating the cur- rent a n d future activities in t h e ocean part of the coastal zone, prepared a declaration for the extension of t h e CRZ to t h e outer limit of territorial sea (upto 12 n m from the lowest low water level), a s defined u n d e r the Maritime Zones Act, 1976 to prohibit a n d regulate certain activities a n d p r o c e s s e s in conjunction with the existing ac t s, rules a n d notifications.

The draft ORZ (Ocean Regulation Zone) document recognizes three zones (ORZ. I, II and III) similar to the CRZ. The landward boundary of the ORZ including the enclosed seas, estuaries a n d b a c k w a t e r s is not mentioned in the ORZ draft report (Table 3 a n d 4).

TABLE 1. Classification of coastal regulation

zone in India (as per thel991 Notification) Category of

CRZ

Description

Category I (i) Areas t h a t are ecologically sensitive a n d important, such a s n a t i o n a l p a r k s / m a r i n e p a r k s , s a n c t u a r i e s , reserved f o r e s t s , wild life h a b i t a t s , mangroves, corals / coral reefs, a r e a s close to b r e e d i n g a n d spawning g r o u n d s of fish and o t h e r m a r i n e life, a r e a s of o u t s t a n d i n g n a t u r a l b e a u t y - h i s t o r i c a l / h e r i t a g e a r e a s , a r e a s rich in genetic diversity.

(11) Areas between the Low Tide Line a n d t h e High Tide Line.

Category II T h e a r e a s t h a t h a v e already b e e n d e v e l o p e d , w i t h i n t h e municipal limits or in other legally designated u r b a n areas

(5)

u p to or close to the shore line. mal power stations.

Category III Areas t h a t are relatively undis- t u r b e d a n d those which do not belong to either category I or II. These will include coastal zone in the rural a r e a s (developed a n d u n d e v e l o p e d ) a n d a l s o a r e a s w i t h i n M un i ci pa l limits or in other legally desig- n a t e d u r b a n a r e a s , which are not substantially built u p . Category IV C o a s t a l s t r e t c h e s i n t h e

Andaman and Nicobar, Laksha- dweep and small islands except those designated a s CRZ I, II.

TABLE 2. Prohibited activities in the Indian CRZ (as per the 1991 Notification)

1.

5.

Setting up of new industries and expansion of existing i n d u s t r i e s .

Manufacture or h a n d l i n g or storage or disposal of h a z a r d o u s s u b s t a n c e s . Setting u p and expansion offish processing u n i t s including warehousing (exclud- ing hatchery a n d n a t u r a l fish drying in permitted areas).

S e t t i n g u p a n d e x p a n s i o n of u n i t s / m e c h a n i s m s for disposal of waste and effluents, except facilities required for dis- charging treated effluents into the water course with approval u n d e r the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,

1974.

Discharge of u n t r e a t e d w a s t e s and efflu- e n t s from i n d u s t r i e s , cities or towns and other h u m a n settlement.

Dumping of city or town waste for the purpose of land filling or otherwise; the existing practice, if any, shall be phased out within a reasonable time not exceed- ing three y e a r s from the date of this No- tification.

Dumping of a s h or any wastes from ther-

8. Land reclamation, building or disturbing the n a t u r a l course of seawater with similar obstructions, except those required for control of coastal erosion a n d main- t e n a n c e or clearing of waterways, chan- nels ports, for prevention of s a n d b a r s . 9. Mining of s a n d , rocks a n d o t h e r s u b -

s t r a t a materials, except those rare minerals not available outside the CRZ areas.

10. Harvesting or drawal of groundwater and c o n s t r u c t i o n of m e c h a n i s m s therefore within 200 m of HTL; In the 200-500 m zone it shall be permitted only when done m a n u a l l y t h r o u g h o r d i n a r y wells for drinking, h o r t i c u l t u r e , agriculture and fisheries.

11. C o n s t r u c t i o n activities in ecologically sensitive a r e a s .

12. Any construction activity between the low tide line a n d high tide line except facilities for carrying t r e a t e d effluents and waste water discharges into the sea, facilities for carrying seawater for cooling p u r p o s e s , oil, gas and similar pipelines a n d facilities e s s e n t i a l for a c t i v i t i e s permitted u n d e r this Notification; and 13. Dressing or altering of sand d u n e s , hills,

n a t u r a l f e a t u r e s i n c l u d i n g l a n d s c a p e changes for beautification, recreational and other s u c h p u r p o s e s , except a s per- missible u n d e r this Notification.

The coastal zone h a s the highest biological diversity, b u t a s a common property, it is easily accessible to t h e various u s e r s . There- fore, the ongoing a n d prospective threats to the coastal life s u p p o r t systems need to be regulated t h r o u g h appropriate acts including the proposed biodiversity act. India, as a party to the International Convention on Biological Diversity (enforced in 1993), h a s recently drafted a Biological Diversity Act for the pur-

(6)

pose of conserving t h e biological r e s o u r c e s , both indigenously occurring and naturalised, to s u s t a i n their u s e a n d s h a r e their benefits equitably.

TABLE 3. Classification of the proposed draft ocean regulation zone

Category of Description ORZ

Category I Territorial sea a r e a s adjacent to t h e m a i n l a n d a n d A n d a m a n &

Nlcobar and Lakshadweep i s l a n d s t h a t are ecologically sensitive a n d i m p o r t a n t s u c h a s national p a r k s / m a r i n e p a r k s / m a r i n e depen- dent wild life sanctuaries, habitats of endangered e s t u a r i n e a n d marine species, m a r i n e environment of mangroves, corals, corals reefs, areas close to breeding and spawning g r o u n d s of fish a n d other ma- r i n e life, a r e a s of o u t s t a n d i n g n a t u r a l b e a u t y / historical / cul- t u r a l / heritage a r e a s , a r e a s rich in genetic diversity a n d s u c h other a r e a s a s may be declared by the Central / State governments u n - der relevant Acts like Wildlife (Pro- tection) Act, 1972.

Category II Territorial s e a a r e a s adjacent to the coastal a r e a s t h a t have already been used for development s u c h a s (1) c o n s t r u c t i o n of b e r t h s , wharf, navigational c h a n n e l etc. in major a n d minor ports, (ii) sea off coastal industries, power plants, refineries a n d other industries which use sea for w a s t e disposal through creeks, canals and pipelines, (ill) reclaimed a r e a s , oil and g a s transfer facilities, (iv) Corporation, Municipal limits of cities a n d towns, (v) s e a off coastal a r e a s being u s e d for ship building a n d ship breaking activities, (vi) sea off beach resorts, m a r i n a s etc..

Category 111 Territorial sea a r e a s adjacent to coastal a r e a s which are yet to be used for developmental purposes {not u s e d for activities mentioned u n d e r Category 11 (ORZ II) and w h i c h h a v e b e e n u s e d for d e v e l o p m e n t a l p u r p o s e s t o a limited e x t e n t ( c o n s t r u c t i o n of fishing h a r b o u r s and navigation al channel) a n d also the sea areas between two developed a r e a s .

TABLE 4. Prohibited activities in the proposed ORZ

1. Reclamation of sea for h u m a n settlement, construction of artificial Islands for other c o m m e r c i a l p u r p o s e is p r o h i b i t e d all along t h e coastline of t h e country.

2. D u m p i n g of solid w a s t e s , i n c l u d i n g plastic w a s t e s arising from municipal.

Industrial a n d all the other sources including from the s h i p breaking Indus- tries.

3. Dumping of toxic w a s t e s (as listed u n d e r EPA 1986) is prohibited in ORZ I, 11, and III a r e a s .

4. Construction of civil a n d other manmade s t r u c t u r e s a n d b r e a k w a t e r s , OTEC p l a n t s , floating I n d u s t r i e s / s t r u c t u r e s / Single Buoy Mooring Stations, lightening operations, laying of pipelines for t r a n s - port of oil, e s t a b l i s h m e n t of artificial Is- lands, reefs, exploration a n d exploitation of oil a n d n a t u r a l gas, reclamation of sea a n d Its bed a n d sea bed mining in the critical h a b i t a t s which are Ecologically Sensitive. However, s u c h constructions / e s t a b l i s h m e n t s will be permitted at a no-impact distance from the outer limits of t h e s e h a b i t a t s .

5. Ship breaking activities are prohibited In the critical h a b i t a t s . However, s u c h activities will be permitted beyond the no- impact distance from t h e outer limit of t h e critical h a b i t a t s .

(7)

6. Discharge of u n t r e a t e d a n d treated domestic, industrial, a q u a c u l t u r e wastes, n u c l e a r a n d t h e r m a l p l a n t s , d r e d g e d materials, a n d operational discharges are prohibited in t h e critical h a b i t a t a r e a s . Note : 9 other activities in ORZ I, 11, and III.

Guidelines in this regard will be presented by DOD/CPCB/DAC

Proposed o c e a n regulation zone

The D e p a r t m e n t of Ocean Development of the government of India prepared a draft notification containing the details of regulatory a n d p r e v e n t i v e m e a s u r e s r e l e v a n t to t h e coastal zone (ocean part) in exercise of the powers conferred u n d e r sections 3 ( 1 ) and 3 (2) (v) of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 a n d clause (d) of s u b r u l e 3 of rule 5 of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986, This draft notification was circulated to all the state g o v e r n m e n t s for s e e k i n g t h e views of all concerned with the sustained use of the Indian seas. Coastal a r e a s which serve as breeding a n d n u r s e r y g r o u n d s of v a r i o u s species of finfish a n d shellfish, a r e a s of high genetic diversity, m u d b a n k s , mussel beds, estuaries and

mangroves are likely to fall u n d e r the purview of the proposed Ocean Regulation Zone Notifi- cation (ORZ I) a s far as Kerala is concerned.

The government of Kerala h a s constituted a committe to seek the opinion of the marine biologists a n d fisheries experts before a deci-

sion on the draft notification is taken.

An i n t e r d e p a r t m e n t a l committee (task force) was constituted by t h e government of Kerala to f o r m u l a t e t h e s t r a t e g i e s for t h e coastal zone management (land and ocean part) and advise the government on all m a t t e r s a n d issues arising out of the 1991 Coastal Zone Regulation Notification of t h e government of India. After a preliminary meeting on the 2 7 t h May 1997, t h e t a s k force constituted a s u b - committee of experts from various disciplines comprising environment, fisheries and ocean- ography, which prepared a draft report based on various ecological, geographical a n d socio-

economic factors, significant to Kerala state, through several discussions a n d literature re- views.

Kerala coastal z o n e

An a t t e m p t is made here to review the i s s u e s relating to coastal zone governance in Kerala in the context of the Environmental Protection Act, a n d the draft Biodiversity Act.

Kerala which h a s only a m e a n width of 67 km, is bordered by the Arabian Sea on the west (590 km long coastline) and the Western Ghats on the east.

The land area of 38,828 km^ is almost equal to the continental shelf of 40,000 km^.

Coastal Kerala s u p p o r t s a population of 0.64 x 10^ fisherfolk. There are 41 west flowing rivers, w h i c h d i s c h a r g e into 30 e s t u a r i e s , o p e n i n g into t h e s e a t h r o u g h p e r e n n i a l or seasonal outlets across the b a r m o u t h s (Fig. 1).

The e s t u a r i n e bed level is around 1.5 to 1.8 m below the m e a n sea level. The estuaries re- main separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land which is only 0.4 to 12 km in width.

The e s t u a r i e s a n d the backwaters which once o c c u p i e d a n a r e a of 2 , 4 2 6 km^, h a v e now s h r u n k e n to 652 km^ due to serious alterations during the p a s t 150 y e a r s t h r o u g h reclamation for agriculture a n d h u m a n settlement. All

K a r i n s o t e • s t u a r y NileahwHr b a c k w s t n r K a v v a y l back>v«t«r D h a r m a p a t t a n a m b a c k w a t e r IVIannoyed a t t u a r y M a h e asiuary K o t t a b a c k w a t e r K o r a p u z h a c K u a r y Payyoll b a c k t v a t a r E l a t h u r b a c k w a t e r K a l l a l b a c k w a t e r Beypora actuary K a d a l u n d l aatuary F u r a p a r a m b a b a c k w a t e r P o n n a n i b a c k w a t e r C h e t t u v e b a c k w a t e r A x h c e k o d e estuary K o d u n K a l l a o r b a c k w a t e r C o c h i n actuary V e m b a n a d u b a c k w a t e r K a y a m k u l a m b a c k w a t e r A e h t a m u d l e e t u a r y P a r u r b a c k w a t e r B d a v a n a d a y a r a b a c k w a t e r A n c h u t h e n g u b a c k w a t e r K a d l n a m k u l a m back^vater V e i l l a k e b a c k w a t e r P o o n t h u r a b a c k w a t e r / P a o v a r beck*vater

A k a t h u m u r l lake

^ OHX I

Fig.l. Map of Kerala showing estuaries and backwaters.

(8)

the major e s t u a r i e s are intertwined with urban agglomerations of high population density.

The intertidal belt is either sandy or rocky and the shorelines are In a c o n s t a n t s t a t e of flux. Shore erosion or accretion Is imper- ceptible along m a n y locations, while in places like Quilon, Cochin and Calicut erosion is caus- ing severe d a m a g e s , especially d u r i n g t h e southwest monsoon season. Coastal area u s e s have tended to accelerate, a c c e n t u a t e and even adversely affect the shorelines a n d the associated ecosystems. Breakwaters a n d seawalls have been c o n s t r u c t e d over great s t r e t c h e s along the sandy shores, often masking the scenic beauty of the s a n d y b e a c h e s .

Territorial sea

i) General characteristics

The territorial sea (upto 12 nautical miles from the baseline) of Kerala with a n area of 13,000 km^ Is characterised by sandy or muddy sea bottom, and rocky or coral patches in some locations. Except for the s e d e n t a r y groups of organisms found in the rocky intertidal belt, most of the organisms in the coastal waters exhibit s e a s o n a l m o v e m e n t s or m i g r a t i o n s , depending on the behaviour of the species and t h e p r e v a i l i n g c l i m a t i c a n d h y d r o g r a p h i c conditions. Therefore, none of these species could be considered a s specific to any small definable area or pocket along the coast. Many tropical finflshes a n d shelflshes have extended spawning periods linked with their genetic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d I n f l u e n c e d b y t h e h y d r o g r a p h i c c o n d i t i o n s c a u s e d b y t h e monsoons and the seasonal coastal drifts a n d currents. As most of the breeding t a k e s place In the shallow w a t e r s , the entire coastal area acts a s n u r s e r y g r o u n d for one species or the other, depending on their preference of the s u b s t r a t u m , t h e s e a d e p t h a n d food. The penaeld prawn, Parapenaopsis stylifera (called karikadi in Malayalam) which affords h a s a rich fishery in the Kerala Inshore w a t e r s , plays a vital role in t h e economy of t h e s t a t e , a n d breeds within t h e shallow 20 to 30 m deep grounds off Quilon, Alleppy and E r n a k u l a m

districts over an area of a b o u t 1000 km^ There- fore, t h i s belt may be considered sensitive, which however, should not preclude any traditional activities, which are governed by vari- o u s other environment protection rules and regulations of the s t a t e .

ii) Coastal fisheries

The coastal waters of Kerala are subjected to high fishing p r e s s u r e by t h e mechanised (46

% of total catch) a n d motorlsed (50 % of total catch) sectors, mostly in t h e d e p t h s of 0 to 50 m, covering an a r e a of 12,560 km^ which is only 7 % of the all India a r e a within the 0 to 50 m depth. The m a r i n e fisheries sector in Kerala generated a revenue of a b o u t Rs. 1,000 crore from the internal m a r k e t a n d about Rs.

800 crores t h r o u g h foreign exchange from the export m a r k e t per y e a r currently t h r o u g h a catch of a b o u t 5.50,000 t o n n e s , which is 24 per cent of the all India catch. The territorial sea (approximately 0 to 30-m depth) produced 62 % of the total catch of 5,70,000 tonnes in 1997. The entire catch of the outboard trawler fleet is c a u g h t from this depth belt, whereas 80 % of the outboard ringseiner fleet, 92 % of the non-mechanised fleet, 63 % of the outboard gillnetter fleet a n d 4 3 % of t h e trawler fleet catches are contributed by the territorial sea.

The territorial w a t e r s yielded 72 % of the total prawn catches of Kerala, 88 % of oil sardine, 71 % of whitebait a n d 82 % of mackerel catch in 1997. About 73 % of the territorial sea catch b e l o n g s to t h e p e l a g i c s a n d 27 % to t h e demersals (of which 13 % Is of prawns, lobsters a n d cephalopods). The a n n u a l catch per km^

a r e a In t h e coastal w a t e r s (0 to 50m depth) of Kerala is 41t whereas it is only 121 for all India.

Bottom trawling is estimated to destroy about 13,000 t of b e n t h i c o r g a n i s m s per y e a r In Kerala, c a u s i n g t h e r e b y g r e a t l o s s to t h e benthic biodiversity a n d habital degradation.

The existing or proposed fisheries regulations should e n s u r e s u s t a i n e d growth in fisheries a s well a s protection to t h e ecosystem, especially t h e b e n t h i c system.

iii) Mudbank (soft) e c o s y s t e m

The m u d b a n k s which are 1 to 3 m thick

(9)

patches of calm, turbid waters with a high load of s u s p e n d e d sediment and a clayey bottom, appear close to the shore in a stretch of 2 to 5 km length parallel to the coast and 1.5 to 4 km across (width) t h e coast of Kerala (Fig. 2).

They appear with t h e onset of the s o u t h w e s t monsoon (May & J u n e ) and disappear with the withdrawal of the s o u t h w e s t monsoon in Sep- tember & October. The m u d b a n k s are formed due to the periodic s t r e s s from the waves over a muddy bottom, resulting in bed erosion, gen- eration of fluid mud and wave attenuation. The combined action of the waves a n d the c u r r e n t s t r a n s p o r t s t h e fluid m u d en m a s s e to t h e n e a r s h o r e a n d t h e l o c a l i s a t i o n of t h e m u d b a n k s Is a t t r i b u t e d to wave energy convergence. The fine bottom sediment is generally t r a n s p o r t e d from offshore. Along shore, extension of the m u d b a n k s is due to the waves forcing from outside the m u d b a n k area and the prevailing coastal c u r r e n t s of t h e s o u t h w e s t monsoon. The m u d b a n k s usually from in the same place each year a n d after brief existence (generally 1.5 months) the fluid mud exhibits downslide movement, dissipating the mudbank.

Year to year shifting of the m u d b a n k s , if any, Is attributed to the variations in the bathymet- ric conditions which decide the magnitude of energy convergence. The m u d b a n k s exist be-

,..

• » •

••

^ M » a i . « T H U i l '"'1

^ [ . "^ '••• V *

\ ^ ^^

Tat'**'*'*

m DMceaio MOO v*»«»««<iin»ii«#u»"

>

T » - » • •

• •

<o*

, Fig. 2. Areas of m u d b a n k formation and the various types

of m u d b a n k s along the Kerala and Karnataka coast (Source: CMFRI. Bull. 31).

c a u s e of the rheological behaviour of t h e bottom sediment, from which the suspended sedi- mentary material Is derived. Shear thinning behaviour releases the dense suspenion of mud from the bottom. The Newtonian and shear- thickening behaviour of the s u s p e n s i o n u n d e r low shear stress might be responsible for main- taining it a s a discrete unit.

Monsoon waves a s high a s 2 to 3 m outside t h e m u d b a n k get reduced to 0.5 m near t h e m u d b a n k w i t h i n a distance of 1.1 km.

Wave-induced oscillation of fluid m u d c a u s e s wave energy dissipation, particularly in the seaward periphery of the m u d b a n k . This wave dampening process in the m u d b a n k facilitates safe a n c h o r a g e a n d s m o o t h fishing for the t r a d i t i o n a l f i s h e r m e n d u r i n g t h e m o n s o o n season, which is generally unsafe outside the m u d b a n k for f i s h i n g d u e t o c l i m a t i c limitations. The importance of the m u d b a n k s to coastline stability a n d protection and to the sociocultural a n d economic wellbeing of the traditional fisherfolks is well known. A project mode investigation carried out by a multi-dis- ciplinary team of subject matter specialists of CMFR Institute h a s b r o u g h t to light the physical, chemical a n d biological characte-ristics of m u d b a n k s s o u t h of Alleppy way back in sev- enties.

T h e m u d b a n k s e d i m e n t c o n s i s t s of highly cohesive and flocculated clay. The most d o m i n a n t textural class is silty or clayey with a good a m o u n t of sand, silt and clay. The mud density ranges from 1,080 kg to 1,300 kg/m^

and the dispersed particle size between 0.5 and 3 pm. The clay which is 66 % of the sediment, consists of montmorillonite and kaolinite. The -> heavy minerals include opaque, hornblende, sillimanite, muscovite, pyroxenes, epidote, zir- con, monozite a n d rutile.

The m u d b a n k region is rich in the stand- ing crop of phytoplankton biomass (70 to 130 ml/1), chlorophyll a (11 to 33 mg / m^) and total phytoplankton cell count (345 to 575,000/

1). Blooms of phytoplankton (> 10,000 cells p e r m l ) , m a i n l y of s p e c i e s of Noctiluca, Skeletonema a n d Fragilaria o c c u r in t h e

(10)

m u b a n k s , which are inhabited by 58 species of planktonic algae. The zooplankton b i o m a s s is high (upto 4.06 m l / 1 0 m i n u t e haul) in the m u d b a n k s . There are 19 groups constituting the zooplankton which Is dominated by t h e copepods (80 %).

The sediments of the m u d b a n k carry rich loads of organic m a t t e r (5 %). About 9 0 to 95

% of the benthic fauna in t h e m u d b a n k con- sist of polychaetes a n d molluscs. The former is more a b u n d a n t in the shallow sea a n d the latter in the deeper a r e a s . The meiobenthos consists mainly of the foraminifera, nematodes, o s t r a c o d s , p o l y c h a e t e s , c o p e p o d s a n d amphipods. The calm sea together with high p r o d u c t i v i t y , f a v o u r s fish a n d s h e l l f i s h migration to t h e m u d b a n k s a n d therefore, yields high catches. Fish production from the m u d b a n k a n d n o n m u d b a n k a r e a s during t h e 1966-'75 period for 3 m o n t h s ( J u n e to Aug.) shows t h a t t h e production in t h e m u d b a n k s is 56 % higher t h a n in the n o n m u d b a n k a r e a s (Fig. 3). The catch c o n s i s t s of 50 species of fish and 6 species of p r a w n s . M. dobsoni, oil sardine, silverbellies, flatfishes a n d anchovies form the bulk of the landings.

iv) Hard bank ecosystem

The highly productive Quilon b a n k of hard, rocky bottom located within Lat.8''30' N and 9°30' N and Long. 75''25' E a n d 760l5'E, with a total area of 3,300 k m ^ is a rich fishing ground for demersal fishes, s h r i m p s a n d lobsters. Another small, h a r d b a n k (the Chettuva b a n k ) l o c a t e d off T r i c h u r w i t h i n Lat. 100.31'N10°.33' N a n d Long. 75o.09'E a n d 750.15'E. with a n area of 28 km^. is also a good fishing ground. The shoreward portions of both these b a n k s deserve protection from a n y activity t h a t might d i s t u r b t h e s e two h a r d b a n k s unduly in t h e longrun.

v) Malabar upwelling area

Almost t h e e n t i r e territorial w a t e r s of Kerala w h i c h lie w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of t h e Malabar upwelling zone, yields about 30 to 40 %

12000 .

10000:

8000

4000 :

1966 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

Flg.3. Annual fish catch from mudbanks.

(Source: CMFRI. Bull.31) of the total fish catch of t h e state. This area s u p p o r t s t h e l i v e l i h o o d of 0 . 6 7 m i l l i o n fisherfolk and employs a b o u t 1,00,000 active fishermen. All the existing regulations under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and any other prohibition/ regulations deemed necessary in the course of future fisheries and allied activities s h o u l d be strictly enforced a n d imple- mented for s u s t a i n a b l e m a r i n e fisheries development a n d m a n a g e m e n t .

vi) Mussel beds

The green m u s s e l b e d s {Perna viridis.) occurring in the rocky intertldal a r e a s u p to

ill

-^

I

\:

>v»

EZ'SM'

<<XrXv

"^<^Wt

^

r

!

^x!

^kjMHMIvai J

"^N,

.

Flg.4. Coastal zone map of Kerala. 1. Kollamgode- KovJlthottam.

(11)

the 15 m depth in p a r t s of Quilon, Alleppy, Cochin and Calicut to Kasaragod, in a total area of 200 km^, are sensitive h a b i t a t s by vir- tue of their vulnerability to overexploitatlon, biodiversity degradation a n d pollution. The a n n u a l production of green m u s s e l is a r o u n d 2,000 to 5,000 t while the s t a n d i n g stock in an area of 555 h a h a s been estimated at 15,887 t. The mussel b e d s need to be included u n d e r t h e p r o p o s e d ORZ 1. S i m i l a r l y t h e b r o w n mussel {Pema indica) b e d s , found in the inter- t i d a l t o t h e 10 m d e p t h off V a r k a l a to Kanyakumarl, in a total area of 50 km^, may be treated a s sensitive h a b i t a t s a n d included u n d e r the ORZ 1. The a n n u a l production of b r o w n m u s s e l from t h e i m p o r t a n t fishing centres between Kovalam a n d Muttom (about 50 km) h a s been estimated at 500 to 2,000 t while the s t a n d i n g stock h a s been estimated

7«' 5' 10' IS' » ' 25' JO' » '

at 1,586 t. These rocky h a b i t a t s also support rich rock lobster populations, which deserve conservation and protection.

vii) Rocky outcrops, islands and coral patches

The rocky outcrops (e.g.. Sacrifice Rock) a n d small islands (e.g.. Green Island) situated within the territorial waters off Calicut and Cannanore districts a n d their s u r r o u n d i n g s to the t u n e of 20 km^ may be treated u n d e r the ORZ 1 in view of their ecological sensitivity and historic scenic importance. Similarly, the coral p a t c h e s in a n d a r o u n d Vizhinjam (about 15 km^) w h i t h i n t h e t e r r i t o r i a l w a t e r may be treated u n d e r the ORZ 1. Owing to their rich b i o d i v e r s i t y a n d i m p o r t a n c e a s n u r s e r y g r o u n d s , some of the rich biodiversity pockets along the rocky h a b i t a t s off Kovalam, Varkala a n d Tellicherry covering a n area of about 20 km^, a n d a n o t h e r 35 km^ of patchy reef areas off Thangaserry may be treated a s sensitive, a n d therefore, kept u n d e r the ORZ 1.

viii) Prospective mariculture and sea - farming sites

Many a r e a s along the intertidal, coastal and e s t u a r i n e w a t e r s are suitable grounds for seafarming of a b o u t 20 species of finfishes, 29

Fig.5. Coastal zone map of Kerala 2. Kovilthottam

Ernakulam. Fig.6. Coastal zone map of Kerala 3. Ernakulain-Tanur.

(12)

Fig.7. Coastal zone m a p of Kerala 4. Tanur - Azhlkode.

crustaceans, 17 molluscs and 7 seaweeds.

Aquaculture of mussels, pearl oysters and a few cultivable species of finfishes has good potential in certain sites spread along the coastal water as well as in the lower gradients of the adjoining estuaries of Trivandrum, Quilon, Ernakulam, Calicut and Cannanore districts. These coastal, estuarine and sea sites should be permitted for installing perma- nent, semipermanent or temporary structures for aquaculture (rafts, racks, longlines, cages etc.) either through free access or licensing, even if such areas may come under the sensi- tive categories within the existing CRZ or pro- posed ORZ. O t h e r g r o u p s of p o t e n t i a l seafarming candidates include the crabs, lob- sters and groupers in the coastal zone.

The productivity of all these areas could be enhanced through searanching of overex- ploited stocks by seeds produced in the hatch- eries. The government may initiate steps to provide farm sites, training and subsidies or soft loans for investment in seafarming and searanching through individual as well as co- operative efforts.

While formulating various development programmes in the coastal or ocean zone of high biological diversity, it is important to

Fig.8. Coastal zone m a p of Kerala 5. Azhlkode-Uppala.

consider the entire coastal and ocean zones as a single economic unit. Priorities may be fixed b a s e d on t h e i m p e r a t i v e s of long-term protection to the critical habitats identified in this document. These habitats are considered to be highly vulnerable to overexploitation, pollution and various other manmade physical, chemical and biological threats. The critical habitats faUing within the proposed ORZ along the Kerala coast are demarcated with their boundaries in Figs. 4 to 8.

Estuarine ecosystem

1} General characteristics

As the estuaries are " partially enclosed w a t e r c o n n e c t e d with t h e ocean and

characterised by the mixing of freshwater and

seawater because of runoff and tidal ingress",

these waterbodies may qualify to be treated

under the proposed ORZ. Of the 41 rivers flow-

ing into the sea bordering Kerala, 30 have ei-

ther permanently or seasonally open estuar-

ies or backwaters with a total waterspread area

of 500 km^ (within the total brackishwater area

of 4,226 km*), which forms about 20 % of the

total backwater areas in India. Reclamation

for.various purposes has reduced the Kerala

bracklshwaters area form 4,226 km* to 652 km*

(13)

at present. Most of the brackishwater, from t h e b o r d e r s of t h e u r b a n a r e a s of Quilon, AUeppy. E r n a k u l a m , Calicut a n d Cannanore districts. Fishing activities in the b a c k w a t e r s support the livelihood of about 0.2 million fish- e r m e n a n d provide e m p l o y m e n t for a b o u t 50,000 active fishermen. All t h e e s t u a r i e s are highly productive a n d form n u r s e r y g r o u n d s for a variety of commercially important penaeid prawns, clams, edible oyster, c r a b s , mullets, pearlspot, catfishes, p e r c h e s a n d o t h e r s . The a n n u a l average (1992-'93) c a t c h from t h e Kerala e s t u a r i n e ecosystem is 24,024 t with the m a x i m u m contribution from E r n a k u l a m district followed by Alleppy and Quilon districts (Fig. 9).

The b a c k w a t e r s are u s e d for t r a n s p o r t of oil, chemicals, toxic materials by b a r g e s , pipes etc., public transport, mining, waste disposal, mariculture, recreation, reclamation for agriculture a n d residential development. Do- mestic and industrial effluents discharged from the u r b a n h a b i t a t i o n s a n d i n d u s t r i e s have led to instances offish kills, degradation of benthic biota a n d a general decline in the n a t u r a l carrying capacity of the system.

There is a total area of 1,671 h a of m a n - groves, either discontinuous or patchy, distrib- uted in the lower r e a c h e s of the e s t u a r i e s in C a n n a n o r e (755 h a ) , Calicut (263 ha) a n d E r n a k u l a m (260 ha) districts. This h a b i t a t which is n u r s e r y for m a n y shellfishes (mainly s h r i m p s a n d prawns) a n d finfishes if vulnerable to overfishing.

Although edible oysters occur in all the estuaries, they grow abundantly in Ashtamudi, V e m b a n a d , Mahi, V a l a p a t n a m a n d Neeles- waram b a c k w a t e r s a n d e s t u a r i e s . Edible oyster culture h a s b e e n found to be ecofriendly and quite viable. The clam b e d s of A s h t a m u d i and Vembanad lakes provide good clam fisheries. The high saline zones of these lakes close to the sea In t h e Malabar region are ideal for green m u s s e l a n d pearl c u l t u r e . However, m a n y l o c a t i o n s in t h e m i d d l e a n d u p p e r s t r e t c h e s of t h e e s t u a r i e s serve a s r e t t i n g grounds, where extremely poor environmental

12000

10000

BOOO

6000 <

4000

2000

TRV QUI ALL ERN TRI MAL KOZ CNR KSR

Fig. 9. Estuarine fish catch In the coastal districts of Kerala during 1992-'93.

conditions prevail resulting in low diversity index for zooplankton and b e n t h o s . There are over 200 m e d i u m a n d large scale Industries a n d a b o u t 2,000 small scale i n d u s t r i e s dis- charging their effluents into the estuaries, besides a discharge of a b o u t 650 t of organic matter per day from 14 municipal bodies. Hot- spots of industrial pollution have been Identi- fied and demarcated in the estuaries of Calicut.

Cochin, and Trivandrum. The heavy traffic of mechanised a n d motorlsed fishing vessels and cargo s h i p s also contributes significantly to marine pollution which is very intense in the Azhikode to Alleppy a n d Quilon to Kollengode belts.

The State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) m o n i t o r v a r i o u s forms of c o a s t a l pollution which is co-ordinated by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). A recent report of the D e p a r t m e n t of S c i e n c e , T e c h n o l o g y a n d Environment (DSTE), government of Kerala, states t h a t "the waterbodies in the coastal zone are susceptible to pollution mainly due to the effluent discharged from Industries; domestic a n d community sewage drainage from agricul- t u r a l l a n d s (containing fertilisers, pesticides, fungicides etc.), coconut h u s k retting areas and spillage of oil a n d kerosene in the vicinity of major commercial a n d fishing h a r b o u r s also contribute to pollution of waterbodies. Some 10

(14)

of the major i n d u s t r i e s t h a t discharge waste materials into t h e coastal zone are Western India Plywood, Mavoor Rayons, FACT, Cochin Refineries, Lakshmi Starch Factory, Hindustan Insecticides, Indian Rare E a r t h s a n d TTP. Long term monitoring of t h e pollution of the coastal w a t e r s is b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r COMAP project in which, CESS a n d NIO study Kerala Coastal Zone. This s t u d y indicates t h a t the threshold volumes exceeded nowhere in Kerala.

However, if p r e c a u t i o n s are not taken, pollution can reach d a n g e r o u s levels at several locations."

The inclusion of the e s t u a r i n e h a b i t a t s under the proposed ORZ may help safeguard this "buffer strip" a g a i n s t the h a z a r d s of pollution and reclamation. The estuaries in Kerala maintain exceptionally high levels of biological productivity. They play such important ecological roles a s (a) n u t r i e n t a n d organic m a t e - rial transport through tidal circulation, (b) fishing grounds, (c) n u r s e r y grounds for many species of marine s h r i m p s , c r a b s a n d fishes a n d (d) b r e e d i n g g r o u n d s for t h e f r e s h w a t e r carldian p r a w n s . The berried population of the fresh water prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) migrates downstream the Cochin backwaters during September - December for hatching and the completion of larval m e t a m o r p h o s i s . Out of 23.4 of downstream migrating berried popu- l a t i o n , only 3 0 . 2 % r e a c h e s t h e spawning grounds while the remaining 69.8 % is lost d u e to fishing.

The landward extent of the ORZ in the various e s t u a r i e s / b a c k w a t e r s of Kerala may be fixed at the point of high water tidal Influx (5 ppt. salinity), which varies from place to place depending on the coastal physiography, slope / gradient, seasons and river discharge intensity and p a t t e r n . Therefore, this point should be decided on a case to case b a s i s a n d also by the magnitude of s t r e s s c a u s e d by activities.

As the landward p a r t of the ORZ comprises more private properties with a variety of h u - man activities, fixing a common b o u n d a r y for all the activities together might lead to wide- spread objections a n d p r o t e s t s a n d h e n c e re- tard development in the coastal sector. In view

of t h e u n i q u e r e s o u r c e u s e p a t t e r n s , u r b a n i s a t i o n , p o p u l a t i o n concentration, low per capita land availability, development needs in t h e domestic power a n d i n d u st ri al sectors, a n d excellent p r o s p e c t s of e s t u a r i n e tourism, there is great potential for conflicts between conservation a n d development in the state.

Therefore, only t h e major e s t u a r i e s in the ur- b a n a r e a s of Qullon (Ashtamudl) district and E r n a k u l a m - Alleppy (Vembanad) districts, to- g e t h e r forming a b o u t 2 3 7 km^ s h o u l d be b r o u g h t u n d e r ORZ II. The landward extent in each e s t u a r y h a s to be decided by the local authorities taking into consideration the environmental, social, economic a n d development needs a n d on a case to case b a s i s . All the other e s t u a r i e s a n d b a c k w a t e r s may be categorised u n d e r ORZ I (263 km^).

ii) Cochin backwater: A c a s e study

The Cochin backwater popularly known a s t h e V e m b a n a d Lake e x t e n d s a c r o s s the Alleppy a n d E r n a k u l a m districts with two seasonal openings a n d one p e r m a n e n t opening into the Arabian Sea. Six rivers discharge into this backwater lake. Fishing t a k e s place in this lake r o u n d t h e year. Due to reclamation, the lake a r e a of 36,500 h a a s estimated in 1834 h a s reduced to 12,700 h a in 1983. The lake is inhabited by 150 species of flnflshes, 7 species of penaeid p r a w n s . 6 species of palaemonidae and 2 species of clams, a n d is characterised by very high primary, secondary a n d benthic production. The estimated a n n u a l fisheries production Is a r o u n d 7,200 t (penaeid prawns 48.6%, flnflshes 4 5 . 8 %, c r a b s 13.8 % and palaemonid prawns 1.8 %) while the black clam production Is more t h a n 7,000 t per year.

Species diversity Index (H) for polychaetes and c r u s t a c e a n s In t h e Cochin backwaters determined in 1978 revealed a gradual r e d u c t i o n from t h e b a r m o u t h t o w a r d s the higher gradients, where the s t r e s s d u e to pollution was very high. The species diversity of b r y o z o a n s r a n g e d from 0 . 4 2 d u r i n g t h e monsoon s e a s o n of oligohallne conditions to

1.82 d u r i n g t h e premonsoon s e a s o n for a sta- t i o n w i t h i n a r a d i u s of 1 k m from t h e II

(15)

b a r m o u t h . The u p p e r reaches of the estuary indicated low diversity. This reduced diversity index could be due to the changes t h a t have t a k e n place in t h e water quality of the Cochin b a c k w a t e r s . T h e b r y o z o a n s a r e excellent indicators of aquatic pollution.

The industrial effluent (ammonia, ammo- niac nitrogen, fluorides, mercury, DDT, acidic chemicals a n d s u s p e n d e d solids) discharged from the Eloor- Edayar in du s tr ia l belt into the P e r i y a r r i v e r ( w h i c h J o i n s t h e C o c h i n backwaters) is estimated to be over 200 million litres/day. A recent report on the s t a t u s of pollution in t h e Periyar river h a s quantified the a n n u a l load of mercury (2,000 kg), zinc (10,095 kg), copper (327 kg) fluorides (250 t) and iron (30 t) d u m p e d into t h i s river (The Hindu, dt. 29-6-'98).

Mass mortality of fish d u e to industrial pollution h a s b e e n reported from the u p p e r reaches of Cochin b a c k w a t e r s a t C h i t r a p u z h a and Champakara. Ammonia load of 432 to 560 ppm, along with acids a n d s u s p e n d e d solids, h a s been found to be deleterious to fish in this backwater lake. Mercury concentration ranged from 0.15 to 1.10 ppm, in the monsoon season in the sediments while at the effluent dicharge point, it recorded 5.5 to 11.5 ppm. Indiscrimi- nate application of a b o u t 10 types of pesticides to the tune of 480 t / y e a r in the Periyar catch- ment area h a s led to the occurrence of DDT In clams and organochlorine in the black clams and fishes in the Cochin b a c k w a t e r s . High concentration of coliform bacteria h a s been de- tected in fish a n d bivalves from Cochin backwaters. About 4 0 h a of saline mudflat within the Cochin b a c k w a t e r s is being u s e d for coco- n u t h u s k retting. This h a s resulted in anoxic conditions a n d hydrogen sulphide a c c u m u l a - tion, rendering t h e a r e a u n s u i t a b l e for almost any type of life. An ElA study conducted in the Cochin b a c k w a t e r s d u r i n g 1994-'95 h a s r e v e a l e d low b e n t h i c p o p u l a t i o n in t h e Udyogamandal c a n a l and a general decline in fish production.

Kerala's c o a s t a l z o n e m a n a g e m e n t plan In response to the government of India

CRZ Notification (dt. 1 9 / 2 / 9 1 ) , the Kerala gov- e r n m e n t h a s prepared the draft Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP) in December 1995 and recommended it for approval by the gov- e r n m e n t of India. The t a s k force constituted to examine t h e draft CZMP of Kerala after detailed discussions, took the following decisions.

1. Though the criteria u s e d by the Kerala government for identifying the high tide l i n e (HTL) w e r e a c c e p t a b l e to t h e government, it was advised to get the HTL certified by t h e Chief Hydrographer (CH), D e h r a d u n for t h e s a k e of m a i n t a i n i n g uniformity at the all-India level.

2. Because of the special features and cir- c u m s t a n c e s of Kerala like the limited land availability a n d high population density it was decided t h a t the distance from the HTL along the creeks, rivers and backwaters shall be kept a s 100 m or the width of the creek, river or backwater, whichever is less for the purpose of regulation.

3. Areas of outstanding n a t u r a l beauty, heri- tages a n d historical sites identified in the plan were agreed to a n d the Kerala gov- e r n m e n t h a s been asked to demarcate the spatial extent of these a r e a s in the coastal m a p s u n d e r t h e CRZ -I c a t e g o r y . Whereever necessary, CRZ -I areas have to be categorised or d e m a r c a t e d to t h e extent possible a s CRZ -1 within CRZ -II or III.

4. All t h e mudflats, t h e m a r s h y surround- ings a n d the mangrove ecosystem have been classified a s CRZ -I. A buffer zone of

50-m distance belt a r o u n d them will be maintained even if the width of the creek, backwater a n d river is less t h a n 50 m.

5. The HTL position a s on February 1991 h a s to b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n for demarcating the CRZ a r e a s . Reclamation is not permitted, nor shall there be any c o n s t r u c t i o n on l a n d s reclaimed after February 1991.

6. Dredging is allowed, b u t the land formed 12

(16)

a s a r e s u l t of d u m p i n g of t h e dredged materials should not be u s e d for develop- m e n t activities.

7. Dredging material not be allowed to be d u m p e d in t h e CRZ a r e a s .

8. Only rare m i n e r a l s not available outside the CRZ areas will be permitted for mining while the others shall not be permitted for mining in the CRZ a r e a s .

9. The Ministry of Forests a n d Environment (MoEF) of the government of India will take u p the i s s u e of mining of r a r e e a r t h with the D e p a r t m e n t of Atomic Energy (DoAE) to a s c e r t a i n their mining p l a n s so t h a t erosion is minimised.

10. All u n i n h a b i t e d i s l a n d s will be classified u n d e r t h e CRZ category.

11. Quilandy h a s been classified a s CRZ-III.

12. No reclamation of kayals (backwaters) will be permitted within t h e CRZ a r e a s . 13. No coastal r o a d s or railways are permis-

sible within CRZ -1 a r e a s , except for ac- t i v i t i e s p e r m i s s i b l e u n d e r t h e 1 9 9 1 Notification.

The CZMP was recommended for approval by the government of India subject to the above conditions and suggestions. The programme emphasises potential government actions, both preventive a n d remedial m a n a g e m e n t mea- s u r e s . However, t h e a g e n d a a n d t h e plan change from place to place to meet the local needs a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s . The government of Kerala i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e EIA (Environment Impact Assessment) for projects costing Rs. 10 lakhs and above should be referred to the State Committee on Environmental Planning and Co- ordination for review a n d a s s e s s m e n t of environmental implications a n d the clearance of this c o m m i t t e e will be r e q u i r e d before t h e projects are sanctioned. For projects costing Rs 25 l a k h s a n d above, comprehensive EIA statement by experts will be furnished while referring to the committee. For projects cost-

ing less t h a n Rs. 10 lakh, the environmental implication will b e a s s e s s e d by t h e concerned d e p a r t m e n t s following the guidelines issued by t h e committee a n d t h e d e p a r t m e n t s will be responsible for safeguarding the purity a n d stability of the environment. With the above conditions, the departments could proceed with the projects without referring to the committee (Kerala Gazette No. 6. DT 2 / 2 / 7 8 - p a r t I).

The national s c e n a r i o

India is the major s u b c o n t i n e n t in the Indian Ocean brim c o u n t r i e s with a coast of 8,129 km length which is traversed by a network of inland waterbodies in t h e form of riv- e r s , e s t u a r i e s , l a g o o n s , b a c k w a t e r s a n d brackishwater i m p o u n d m e n t s a n d mangroves.

This coastal zone is v i b r a n t with fishing activities operating from 2,251 fish landing centres, yielding a c u r r e n t a n n u a l catch of 2.7 million t o n n e s (1997-'98) by a fleet of 160,000 t r a d i t i o n a l , 3 2 , 0 0 0 m o t o r i s e d a n d 4 7 , 0 0 0 mechanised fishing craft. This zone comprises diverse h a b i t a t s which are subjected to multiple u s e s in a variety of complex, mutually competing or c o n t r a d i c t i n g i s s u e s resulting from habitation, population density, land use p a t t e r n , agriculture, a q u a c u l t u r e , availability of per capita land, power a n d various i n d u s - trial activities. In order to resolve these, there is a countrjrwide polarisation between n a t u r a l resource protection interests a n d economic development i n t e r e s t s . This situation h a s con- siderably increased the responsibilities of the government in meeting the challenges of both these t a s k s to make the economic activities globally competitive a n d economically sustainable. The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 together with its CRZ Notification a n d the draft ORZ r e g u l a t i o n s a n d t h e d r a f t N a t i o n a l Biodiversity Legislation are being relied upon innocuously nowadays.

Coastal zone m a n a g e m e n t in India poses several problems owing to t h e extent and diversity of t h e h a b i t a t s , development needs, population p r e s s u r e , urbanisation, conflicting u s e r interests, s e a s o n a l n a t u r a l disasters, di- 13

(17)

verse sociocultural habits, socioeconomic sta- tus of coastal communities especially of the fisherlolks and the economic and political agenda of each maritime state. The surveys conducted by the International Ocean Institute (India) have identified 17 problems t h a t threaten the management and sustainable development of the Indian coastal zone. The GIS (Geographical Information System), which has been widely accepted as a tool for the sen- sitivity mapping of coastal areas for natural processes, fishing impacts, other manmade hazards like pollution, tourism etc., could be used for identifying and mapping these threats.

The GIS allows the user to integrate and synthesise data from different disciplines into a single system. Its application helps to con- duct modelling exercises for any given input/

stress management plan. Remote sensing technology also provides valuable Information on the quality and changing pattern of coastal zones. The GIS and remotesensing together could provide most of the data required for the ICZM. Based on these Inputs, the ICZM plan could attempt to resolve the following issues:

1) regulation and management of all hazard- ous coastal activities, 2) input/output regula- tion and management for coastal resources conservation, 3) rehabilitation of degraded eco- systems, 4) establishment of protected areas, 5) enhancement of coastal production through searanching, 6) promoting indigenous and community practices and 7) encouraging seafarming and domestication of coastal habi- tats.

Coastal zone uses

The coastal zone is being intensively used for a number of activities, ranging from fishing to high-tech industrial activities which have resulted in manifold problems both of short - term and long-term implications. For example, the Kerala coast is thickly populated with 21.9 million people In the nine coastal districts. It is immediately clear, therefore, t h a t the p r e d o m i n a n t use of this zone Is h u m a n settlement. This is naturally followed by agriculture, fisheries, trade, industry, land

t r a n s p o r t , s h o r e p r o t e c t i o n work, port development and mining. The coastal waters together with an extensive interconnected network of estuaries and backwaters are used primarily for fishing, sea transport, dumping, shell mining and to a limited extent for a q u a c u l t u r e and tourism. All these activities in the coastal zone have resulted In a wide array of problems for the various resource users and the local govern- ment. The uses of and the threats to the various coastal habitats are presented in the Tables 5 and 6.

TABLE

5. Coastal zone uses

Land

Habitations (urban and rural housholds, beach resorts)

Agricultural practices

Agriculture/fishery related traditional and small scale industries Agriculture and fishery related trade

Fish processing, storage, ice plants, boat building and repairing yards

Infrastructure amenities for port development Transport activities

Waterfront expansion for recreation and tourism

Mining

Industries (heavy and medium) Coastal mangrove deforestation

Water

Fishing Aquaculture

Artificial reefs (fish habitats) Shipping / transport

Mining of minerals, corals and fossil shells from the sea

Clay and s a n d mining from e s t u a r i e s / backwaters

Dumping

Port development

Recreation and tourism

Water use for industries

Nearshore drilling for oil

14

(18)

TABLE

6. Coastal zone threats

Natural

Coastal erosion Seawater ingress

Global warming and sea level rise

Natural d i s a s t e r from floods, s t o r m s , hurricanes and cyclones

Outbreak of diseases Sedimentation

Manmade

Population pressure and urbanisation

Land use changes including reclamation and construction

Shore protection works such as seawalls, groins and bulkheads

Overfishing a n d i n s h o r e a q u a c u l t u r e Destruction of h a b i t a t s and biodiversity including mangroves, coral reefs and benthos Mining

Impact of ports Marine transport Uncontrolled tourism

Manufacturing and processing industries Domestic, i n d u s t r i a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l discharges

Sensitive coastal habitats

The Indian coastal zone is characterised by various natural resource systems. The habitats and species are sensitive if they are (i) fragile and susceptible to pollution, (ii) long lived and recruit poorly and (ili) slow to reach maturity, or poor recruitment larval dispersal or no larval stage or unable to move away.

Although no attempt has been made so far to map the sensitivity of coastal areas, the gross sensitivity could be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e magnitude of different impacts and activities in the land-sea interface and in the coastal waters. Accordingly the following habitats have been identified as sensitive in the coastal zone.

T h e s e p a r t s however, r e q u i r e detailed sensitivity mapping of the coastal zone before categorising it into various regulated or protected areas.

(i) Coral reefs: The coral reefs found in

the Indian m a i n l a n d s e a s a n d in the Lakshadweep and Andaman groups of islands include the sensitive fringing reef ecosystems in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf of Kutch and the atolls of the Lakshadweep group of islands and the continental island reefs of A n d a m a n a n d Nicobar, all covering an estimated area of about 1,217 km^. The In- dian coral reef ecosystems are estimated to be capable of a fish production potential of 1.8 to 2.7 lakh tonnes per year. The taxonomic and ecological studies on the coral reef fauna, initiated in the sixties, have revealed the occurrence of 199 species of scleractinian corals under 37 genera from the reefs of India.

Their diversity is high in the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands (135 species) and the Lakshadweep islands (105 species). The biocomposition of these reefs includes 180 spe- cies of benthic algae, 14 species of seaweeds, 12 species of seagrass, 4 species of lobsters, 108 species of sponges, 103 species of echinoderms, 600 species of finfishes in the Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar group of islands and many species of crabs, bivalves, gastropods and cephalopods. The productivity of the reefs is estimated at 9.1 g C/m^/day in the Minicoy Island, 7.3 g C/m^/day in the Gulf of Manner and 3.9 g C/m^/day in the Andamans.

Besides natural processes like global

warming, cyclones, erosion, siltatlon, diseases,

pests (boring sponges & bivalves), algal blooms

(Noctiluca, Trichodesmium, Alexandrium etc),

Indiscriminate exploitation of corals and the

associated flora and fauna, dredging, reclama-

tion and pollution have further threatened the

reef ecosystem. Recent rise in sea surface tem-

perature by 2 to 3''C has caused bleaching of

15

(19)

corals (30 to 80 %) in different p a r t s of the world.

The Gulf of K u t c h M a r i n e P a r k , t h e Wandoor National Marine Park a n d the Gulf of M a n n a r Marine P a r k are basically of coral reefs. Many reef organisms have been brought under the CITES. The biological, chemical and pharmacological characteristics of all the reef biota and their products need to be evaluated for evolving various development and management options. Knowledge of t h e toxicological qualities of the reef biota, their taxonomy, dis- tribution and a b u n d a n c e in space and time and their areawise cataloguing are vital for any di- saster m a n a g e m e n t In the ecosystem relating to h u m a n poisoning either direct or t h r o u g h food chain. An integrated reef ecosystem conservation a n d m a n a g e m e n t concept is imperative for evolving a national reef conservation policy.

(ii) Seagrass habitat: Tropical s e a g r a s s meadows extend from the intertide to a d e p t h of about 10 m. There are altogether 14 species (7 genera) of seagrasses in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Mandovi estuary, Lakashadeep Island lagoons and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

High-energy storms, grazing, predation, pests, diseases a n d h u m a n activities c a u s e d e s t r u c - tion of s e a g r a s s meadows. Studies conducted on the Indian s e a g r a s s h a b i t a t s reveal consid- erable h a b i t a t loss a n d degradation at many places. Five to ten kg of seagrass and seaweeds per boat per day are removed from the Palk Bay while fishing for Penaeus semisulcatus.

(Hi) Mangrove habitat: About 4 5 species of mangroves a r e available in India. In t h e peninsular India mangroves occupy only a limited 380 km long coast covering a n a r e a of a b o u t 3,55,500 h a , of which 82 % is along t h e east coast a n d the Andaman & Nicobar Islands and 18 % along, the west. Large stretches of mangrove vegetation have been removed a n d the land reclaimed for housing, agriculture,

a q u a c u l t u r e a n d industrial activities. Remote sensing a n d GIS for assessing a n d monitoring the h e a l t h of the mangrove ecosystem are very essential for formulating appropriate manage- m e n t strategies for their conservation.

(iv) Coastal beaches: The b e a c h e s con- stitute the interface between the land and the sea, where the n a t u r a l physical processes are dynamic and intense; the shorelines are in a state of flux a n d seasonally subjected to erosion and accretion. Long sandy beaches with d u n e s are found along the east coast, whereas the west coast p r e s e n t s sandy pockets, rocky clefts a n d sprits, creek, bays and headland.

The seasonal and a n n u a l longshore and on- shore-offshore sediment transport modifies the b e a c h profile. Natural processes and h u m a n activities increasingly s t r e s s the beaches. In- tegrated m a n a g e m e n t p l a n Is n e c e s s a r y to safeguard the b e a c h e s from u n d u e h u m a n activities.

(v) Estuarine habitats: The estuaries oc- cupy an a r e a of 1.25 x 10^ h a along the Indian coast spread over nine maritime states and the A n d a m a n & Nicobar Islands. About 52 % of the total backwaters are in Orissa and West Bengal a n d 19.7 % in Kerala. Problems posed by industrial growth along the b a n k s of estu- a r i e s a n d u p s t r e a m i m p o u n d m e n t ( e . g . T h a n n e e r m u k k o m b u n d in Vembanad Lake in Kerala) can be addressed through an integrated a p p r o a c h to coastal zone management.

Coastal biodiversity

The coastal biodiversity occupies different h a b i t a t s ranging from sandy, rocky, coral or mudflat intertidal to t h e shelf edge, each with characteristic flora a n d fauna. The u s e s and applications of biodiversity knowledge are ethi- cal, aesthetic, direct economic a n d Indirect economic. Several coastal p l a n t s a n d animals contribute to our food, many constitute the food of other marine organisms and birds, some of them yield valuable drugs, a few others form 16

(20)

t h e r a w m a t e r i a l for i n d u s t r i a l e x t r a c t i o n , a b o u t 50 species are cultivable a t present, a wide spectrum of coastal biota are u s e d a marine curios, many of t h e m are c a n d i d a t e s for m a r i n e a q u a r i a , while t h e g e n e r a l m a r i n e ecosystem itself together with its facinatlng biodiversity, is a magnificent object of recreation.

Although the fisheries r e s o u r c e s are exploited for h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n , a large n u m b e r of species get destroyed in the process of exploitation. The biodiversity of sensitive coastal ecosystems (beaches, mangroves, e s t u a r i e s , coral reefs, s e a g r a s s b e d s , a n d spawning a n d n u r s e r y g r o u n d s ) face m a n y ainthropogenlc t h r e a t s . The m o s t common m a n m a d e t h r e a t s include t h e land u s e c h a n g e s , conversion of n a t u r a l a r e a s , overexploitatlon of food species, destruction of n o n t a r g e t biota, h a b i t a t degradation a n d destruction, domestic a n d i n d u s - trial d i s c h a r g e s , oil spills, w a s t e d u m p i n g , coastal mining etc. The i m p a c t s of s u c h h u - man Interventions need to be monitored, care- fully a n d a s s e s s e d p e r i o d i c a l l y for t h e mainteancince a n d u s e of the coastal zone. The existing Wildlife (Protection) Act, Environment (Protection) Act, the 1991 CRZ Notification, the proposed ORZ Notification a n d the proposed Biodiversity Act provide t h e n e c e s s a r y legal framework to safeguard t h e marine h a b i t a t s and their biodiversity from m a n m a d e t h r e a t s . International s t a t u s

Many E u r o p e a n a n d some Asian countries have already recognised the coastal zone as a priority area for holistic management, taking into consideration the multiple u s e r interests and conflicts, the seaward a n d landward b o u n d a r i e s , t h e legal framework a n d the sociocultural a n d economic scenarios a n d the coastal population. It is widely felt t h a t a n Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) approach is imperative: (1) to facilitate s u s - tainable economic growth based on coastal liv- ing and nonliving resources, t o u r i s m etc.; (2) to control pollution, h a b i t a t a l t e r a t i o n a n d

degradation; (3) to conserve h a b i t a t s a n d species a n d (4) to a s s e s s a n d monitor the n a t u r a l carrying capacity continually. The coastal zone extends inland a n d seaward to a variable extent, depending on political, administrative, legal a n d ecological considerations of wide- ranging Issues. In m a n y countries the coastal zone extends from t h e territorial limits (wet side) to the tldally influenced habitats (dry side) a s the zone c a n be affected by remote activities (Annexures 1 to 6). Many n a t i o n s have adopted a coastal regulation zone management t h r o u g h appropriate administrative and legal m e a s u r e s , wherein t h e "wet" a n d "dry" areas within the zone are treated a s a single unit.

Invariably, t h e b o u n d a r i e s , especially on the

"dry" side, vary depending on the objectives a n d needs of the I s s u e s .

For a c o u n t r y like India, with diverse social, c u l t u r a l a n d economic background of the coastal zone u s e r population, physiography, development n e e d s , foreshore traversing national highways a n d u r b a n concentrations around a narrow estuary, a common regulation for the different maritime s t a t e s might not be realistic or desirable. Uniform adoption of a coastal buffer zone of 500 m t h r o u g h o u t the c o u n t r y u n d e r t h e CRZ h a s already caused s e r i o u s s o c i a l p r o b l e m s , s o m e t i m e s even leading to litigation from many p a r t s of the coastal states. Each maritime state h a s certain characteristic physiography, coastal sea and land u s e p a t t e r n s . Therefore the limits to the boundaries of the regulated zone, especially of the landward boundaries, should be demarcated after a thorough s t u d y on all the possible im- p a c t s , b o t h n a t u r a l a n d anthropogenic, development n e e d s etc. on t h e coastal zone of the concerned state. The regulations should be suitably r e s t r u c t u r e d on a case to case basis a s regards the b o u n d a r i e s t h a t should be decided after a thorough examination of the mer- its of the concerned activities.

17