Component-I (A) – Personal details:
Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy
Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
Prof. K.P.Rao
University of Hyderabad
Dr. V.Selvakumar
Tamil University, Thanjavur
Prof. R.N.Singh
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Principles and Methods of Archaeology
Recoding of Excavation Evidence
Component-I (B) – Description of module:
Subject Name Indian Culture
Paper Name Principles and Methods of Archaeology
Module Name/Title Recoding of Excavation Evidence
Module Id IC / PMA / M15
Pre requisites Knowledge of English
Basic Knowledge in History and Archaeology
Objectives
Introduction on the methods of documentation
Understanding the documentation procedures
Tools and implements
o Locus-based documentation o Site Notebook
o Trench Notebook o Antiquity Register o Ceramic Register o Photography
o Digital Documentation
Keywords
Excavation Documentation Recording Data Collection E-Text (Quadrant-I):-
1. Introduction
Archaeological excavation is the systematic process of recovering the archaeological and environmental data that are buried in the soil deposits, to understand the ways of life of the past communities on the whole. The purpose of the excavation is to understand the past cultures, human behaviour and spatio-temporal organization.The process of undertaking excavation involves the contribution of several workers, researchers and the experts,who may not be able to attend the excavations. In addition, the excavated remains may be displayed in the museums and/at site museums for the benefit of the public. Hence, recording is an important aspect of archaeological excavations and research.
The excavation operation is a process that is momentary and it cannot be visualized, or recalled from memoryat a later context, but the information is essential for the third parties.
The excavated data, apart from the materials, are required for the reconstruction of the ways of life of the cultures that produced the materials remains found at the excavated site, and also for future researchers as well as for the public as part of heritage education.Therefore, the proceedings of an excavation need to be recorded using various means, and this recording actually transcribes the characteristics of the sediments, activity areas, architecture and the findings that are encountered in an excavation, as accurately as
possible. Hence, multiple methods of recording are important for proper documentation of an excavation. The methods of documentations have been perfected from the time of early excavations in the 18th century to the latest excavations, and the documentation of excavations has advanced to a very high level with the use of advanced digital cameras, videos and 3D imaging tools.
Excavation is considered as a documented destruction.Before “destroying” the sediments and layers, and during and after excavation several types of documentation have to be done.
This module focuses on the recording or documentation of the data from archaeological excavations. The recording of underwater excavations is not discussed here.
2. What is Recording/Documentation
Recording/documentation refers to the collection ofcomplete, relevant datasetfrom an excavation. It is basically capturing data about the material culture and its context that are excavated for understanding the past cultures.
The recording of an excavation involves collection of data in the form of geocoordinates, texts, images, video and audio.
Descriptive recording of the features, artefacts, architecture, sediments, layers and their composition and other features, and their distribution, function and nature.
Photography of features and architecture
Line drawings of features and architecture
Top-plan, section and elevationdrawingsof buildings, layers and loci
Section drawings:layers and features visible on the cut surface of the trench
Drawing of excavated materials and architectural features
Digital Documentation of the materials, architectureand contexts
Artist’s representation and rendering of the site 3. Why Documentation
Once the site is excavated it is lost or destroyed; therefore, for the reference of future researchers and scholars, the evidence from the excavations has to be documented.
While the excavator may have direct knowledge of the excavations at the time of excavation, the excavator may forget the details and finer aspects of the excavated features and their context in course of time. Hence, it is important to document the excavation for the benefit of the research on the past cultures and to write the report and for the reference of future researcher.
Documentation is essential, since it provides the proof and evidence as part of scientific research and interpretation.
Once an excavation is documented, the records can be consulted again and again for a better interpretation and reference.
It can be a tool for education and training.
4. Research Problem
Research problem is an important component of an archaeological excavation. Suppose, if the excavatorasks someone to record a building, the immediate response of that person would be “what should be recorded?” Therefore, the recording of an excavation is related to the research problem. Over the years of experience in excavating many sites across the world, archaeologists have developed, perfected the documentation procedures and methods to address archaeological research problems. Often the research problem is
reconstructing spatio-temporal variations in the activities undertaken at a site, and functions of different structures excavated. However, depending upon the problems of the research project and nature of the site, excavations may be undertaken to focus on a particular research problem.
Future use of the excavated and the prospective heritage management (post-excavation,) plan would require slightly different methods of recording. Salvage excavations would need more minute level recording, especially if the structures excavated are to be relocated in another area.
Tools and Implements
Archaeological documentation or recording has to be done with a number of tools and implements. The main agency behind the documentation is the excavator (the human element) or archaeologist who acts as an observer. No machine or equipment can replace the humans in the documentation and interpretation of the cultural materials and their context, since observation of the excavation is done by human observation, perception and cognition. However, the recording/documentation has to use a number of tools and implements as part of the scientific approach and established proceduresrelated to the archaeological excavations. As often mentioned by archaeological textbooks, excavation is a documented destruction, and hence, it is necessary that an excavation is documented properly.Several tools, aids, records and datasheets are necessary for a detailed recordingof excavations and some of them are listed below.
Notebooks and Registers
Trench notebooks and registers are the key documents to be maintained during an archaeological excavation. Each trench may be assigned a trench notebook, for the description of the excavations and observations on various features that are excavated. The nature of the loci(activity areas), their numbering and the soil colour and types and contents may be described in the trench notebooks. Trench notebook is a complete record of the digging activities in a trench. Although nowadays datasheets are introduced, maintaining trench notebooksis also essential.
Datasheets
Datasheets can be used for capturing the data from excavations. They can collect data in an organised manner, according to the research design and plan. Since they provide a template (with a ready set of fields) that can be filled up by the trench supervisors,they can be very useful to capture the data that is required by the research problem, as designed by the principal investigator. But, datasheet cannot be a complete alternative to the trench notebooks. However, data collection through trench notebook should also be maintained.
Drawing Equipment
Unlike the early years of excavations and documentation, drawings have become much easier nowadays because of the development in Information Technology and digital media.But the basic tools of drawing cannot be substituted. Pencils, ink pens, tracing sheets, graph sheets, drawing compass tools, and drawing stands and pad for preparing the drawings at the siteand umbrella to provide shade while drawing, plum bob, line levels, and thread are essential for the preparation of drawings. The software programs such as Photoshop and AutoCAD and other image editing software can also be used for drawing the features and architecture from the excavations.However, a professional draughtsperson is important for accurate drawings of features. Students and research scholars may also be trained in this process.
Mapping Tools
Mapping tools include Theodolite and Dumpy levels of the yesteryears,but nowadays TotalStations are very useful as they help in the mapping of the sites and architectural
features. Here too software helps to bring out an accuratedigital output.
Fig. 1.A Total Station Machine Source: Survey Equipment.com Camera
Camera is another important tool for taking photographs during the excavation. Video cameras can also be used now. Many advanced cameras are now available in the market for high resolution digital documentation. Professional help would be useful in photo documentation.
Computers
Computers are important tools for digitization of the data from the excavations. They can help thedigitization of visual and text data. The photos and other forms of digital data can be manipulated and transferred through computers. Scanners and printers are other associatedtools required for the documentation.
Photo Register
A photoregister is necessary for keeping account of the photos of various features excavated.Although online and digital database are common nowadays,registers can still be useful both in soft and hardcopy versions.
Sample Register
During the excavations several samples have to be collected for analysis, according to the research objectives. As a standard practice charcoal, rock, mineral, floor and other soil samples may be collected. A register for recording the samples collected and sent to the experts for analysis is essential. This register could be useful in maintaining the samples and sending them to various experts and for references in future.
Ceramic Register
Ceramic register or database can gather information of the ceramics. The ceramic registers need to collect data on the various types of ceramics and their count, weight, and features.
Since ceramic drawingsareessential for typological study, they may also be registered in a database. The ceramic specialist can prepare the database for studying the ceramics.
Comb-scale or profile gauge is used for taking the impression of the profiles of the ceramics and for pottery drawing.
Tape measures
For documentation and measurement, various tape measuresand scales are required.
GPS: Global positioning system
GPS system is necessary to document the trench location. Although some of the GPS machines are not very accurate, the coordinates of the trenches should be documented using the GPS for GIS implementation.
Munsell Soil Colour Chart
Munsell soil colour chart is another important standard tool for documentation of soil colour.
When the soil colour is described by naked eye observation, it may not be accurate. But the use of Munsell colour chart can get to describe closer to accurate soil colour. It may be useful for cross regional comparison too.
Fig. 2 Munsell colour Chart Courtesy: By Mark Fairchild - Mark Fairchild, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10178624
Colour chart
Colour charts are useful for the documentation ofbeads. These charts have standard colours and they assist in the accurate documentation of colours. In the documentation of rock art IFRAO scales are used and such scales are includes in the photographs for colour and size comparision.
Scales of various size for photo documentation
Since photo documentation provides a very good idea of the excavated features and objects, the images in the photographs should be made measurable. Providing a scale nearby the objects in the photos could help the reader or observer to understand the dimension of object inthe photo. A 5 m, 1 m or 10 cm or 5 cm scales with cm or 50 cm or 1 cm intervals marked on them can be usedin photography. Often archaeologists use pen or mobile or other objects for photography, although these may be acceptable in extraordinary circumstances, proper scales are necessary for the documentation of archaeological objects and features.
Fig.3. Trench with brick structure, Pattanam, Kerala Courtesy: KCHR and P.J. Cherian Labels and Tags
Last but not the least, are the labels and tags that go with the recovered objects and materials. These labels have to be written in a permanent marker or ink and on hard paper or plastic material. Sometimes when the labels are written with poor quality of ink, which maybe discoloured and the data may be lost, if store under strong sunlight or due to wetting.
Maintaining Standards and Subjectivity in Documentation and Recording
Subjectivity is an important aspect of documentation of an excavation. As far as possible, neutral labels, standard and accepted and easily understandable terms should be used for the description of the excavation. The definition of various technical terms use and their meanings can be given in the publication and reports. Local traditions and conventions may not be understood by people who do not belong to that particular region or tradition. Terms and features such as dump,adobe, mud-bricks, sarcophagus and sundried bricks, clay walls may be defined so that the people who consult the excavation report can understand them better.
Standards and Conventions
An important fact related to the documentation of an excavation is numerous individuals would be recording and documenting features. Therefore, the core team in consultation with the trench excavators, experts and the trench supervisors should develop certain standards and conventions, related to technical terms and glossary. They have to be communicated to those involved in the excavation recording. For example, only one measuring standard, either metric (meter, centimetre, millimetre) or British (Foot, inch) may be used, though now a days it is more common to use metric system.
Instruction to the Team
The instruction to the team on the conventions and standards and the recording procedures and monitoring the records are also important. Periodic discussions and meetings at the trench and in the end of day could be useful in recording and interpretations. The interactions of the excavation team members looking after different areas would benefit the recording and interpretations.
The above measures would help maintain standards in the documentation of the excavation.
Data Archiving and Retrieval Mechanism
Data archiving and retrieval of material is significant process in the excavation. The storage of data and records and references to the storage would be useful for future researchers.
5. Methods for documenting Explorations or Surface Survey
The data collected from the surface surveys need to be documented using various methods.
It may include descriptive account, mapping, and site datasheet and site database.
Descriptive Documentation
The descriptive documentation includes site register and description. Site datasheet can also be used to collect and sort the data. It isalso important to collect data about the local environmental and site background from the local people. The nature of the data to be collected depends upon the research goals. If the field research is about prehistoric sites, it would require different set of parameters, and if the study is about historical sites or monuments, collecting information on the oral tradition is also important.
Site Datasheet
Site datasheet is important for documenting the data related to a site. The nature and type of fields in a datasheet depends upon the nature of the research project and the objectives.
However, certain important fields of data are presented in the table below.
SL. No. Environmental Data
Site
Description
Nature of the sediments
Description of the site
Name of the Site
Hill Site Area Important
finds
References in literature
Location River Site
Preservation
Land Owner Site Stratigraphy
Access Water sources Site
disturbance
Contact number of the owner
Inscriptions
Village Elevation Depth of the site
Suggestion for
preservation and future research
Monuments
Taluk Geology/ Soil Type of
artifacts
Drawing No. Ethnographic information
District Rainfall Type of
pottery
Photo register No
Other Remarks
Geocoordnates Previous research
Coins Beads and
Antiquities
References/publications
6. Documentation of Excavations
Documentation of excavation is a complicated process, and several individuals have to be involved in the documentation process. The documentation of excavation can be divided into
Descriptive and Illustrative Documentation
Photo documentation
Video documentation
Audio recording
Descriptive and Illustrative Documentation Description document includes
Creation of a site database: the localities around the site that are relevant and connected to the excavated site
Preparation of maps of the site and it surroundings
Description of the site in theSite Notebook
Filling-up of Datasheet of various loci, architecture, features and layers of the excavation
Registering the antiquities in the Antiquity Register
Describing the process of excavations in the Trench Notebook
Preparation of Trench top-plans
Preparation of drawings of Features and Architectures Site Data Base/Site register
Another important documentation is the preparation of site register/database. If the survey involves a large region, such a register could be useful for gathering, sorting and analysing the data. This register can be created online and as a digital database.
Site Mapping
Site map is the first documentation to be done at any site before planning the excavation.
Preparation of contour/elevation maps and having fixed reference points at the sites are also crucial aspect of mapping.The mapping is now done with a Total Station device and the coordinatesare transferred as a digital document. The site map has to have contours, disturbed areas and all the features, both cultural and natural, of modern and ancient features.Site mapping is important, even if the research involves only surface survey. During the surveys, if it is not possible to preparea proper map or at least a sketch map on the location and accessto the site proper can be prepared.But, the excavation project should have proper site maps.Site mapping is done prior to the excavations, during and after excavations.
Site Documentation Register/Site Notebook
Site Documentation Register/notebook is an important documentation about the site and the overall excavations. Site notebook is about the documentation of the digging activities in a site. Site notebook is a record maintained by the director of the excavation or the site supervisor. This would have all the observations on the several trenches excavated in different areas of the site, the location, distance of the trenchesin relation to the site datum, Geo-coordinates Datum points, logic behind choosing the location of a trench, correlation of layers and stratigraphy and other general information and finds about the site. Some of these details may be repeated in the Trench Notebook. Sometimes parallel documentation is also important in archaeological excavations.
TrenchNotebook: Descriptive Documentation
Trench refers to a specific enclosed area/pit that is excavated. When a large area is excavated, in some instances, baulkis left in between the trenches. In this system, a trench becomes a separate unit.In such case, a series of documentations have to be maintained for each trench.Text description is a verbal narrative of the site that is excavated. It contains text description of the process of excavation, features, sediments, layers and their composition and other features. It is like a running commentary;one may compare it to the cricket commentary. Here the layers, sediments, architecture, structures and features are described during the excavation and finally after the excavation.This notebook will have data on thelayers, loci, sediments, colour with Munsell colour reading, date of the excavations, strategy adopted, type of sieve,availability and frequency of various cultural materials, interpretation, discussions,sketch maps, issues faced during the excavations and all other important observations. Each and every step has to be thoughtfully recorded and explanation has to be offered for changes in documentation.
Sediments and Layers
The loci excavated in a trench could be a sedimentary layer or a locus. The colour, composition, soil ph, and other parametersof a sedimentary layer should also be recorded.
Collection of samples for analysis is also important. In the documentation of the soil colour and composition, the standard description used in geology may be adopted. The Munsell soil colour chart of the US agricultural department is useful for the description of soil colour.
Locus-based System of Excavation and Documentation
The methods of excavations are described in the module dealing with the techniques of excavations. Here, a brief description of the locus-based excavation method is presented.
The locus involves excavation of each context/ feature separately, after proper recording. In one type of conventional method of excavations, the digging of an arbitrary unit of 5 cm or 10 cm level of sediments is done after gridding the area intoarbitrary grids of one square meter or more. In this method, the pits and other distinct features are demarcated and excavated separately. This is not an accepted, accurate method of excavation and the locus-based method in which contexts are accurately demarcated on the basis of colour, texture and content of the sediment layers is a better method of excavation. Locus data sheet, top-level and bottom level of loci, top-plan, locus description, Harris Matrix are the data recorded regarding the loci.
Locus-based method involves the excavation of activity areas (Loci). Locus is a context or feature or building or layer excavated in an archaeological site. In this method, the contexts are demarcated based on colour of the soil, composition and content. In this system of excavations, the datasheets are mainly used to documentthe information from the trenches.
In addition, the trench notebooksneed to be maintained for detailed description.
At the site of Pattanam in Kerala, the larger locus that covered the entire trench was divided into small quadrants of A, B, C, D and was excavated. This was done to understand if any pattern was seen even within the identical loci,even if it extended uniformly allover the trench.Suppose if a pit of other locus has 40 or 50 cm of deposits of identical nature, the locus can be excavated into subunits of 5 or 10 cm at a time. This situation arises, when an entire trench of 5 m x 5 m hasvery identical, only one locus.
In the case of prehistoric contexts, where undifferentiated mass of sediments is present, they have to be excavated arbitrarily as 2 cm or 5 cm units or as smaller space-time units. But, gradually exposing the artifacts after removing sediments is ideal. Here 10 x 10 cm or 50 x 50 cm grids could be used; point-plotting could also be used, after careful scraping.
Locus Datasheet
The nature of the method adopted and the type of site (e.g. burial and habitation) and its sedimentswould require different types of datasheets. The locus data sheet is essential, if locus-based method is adopted. This data sheet would have information on the nature of the sediment, context, cultural importance location and findings. A sample datasheet is given below (Fig.4). Several other datasheets for pits, architecture, burials and other features may be used. The use of datasheet helps reducing the collected data into a standard online/digital database.
Sample Locus Datasheets (Fig.4)
Fig.4 Sample Locus Datasheets
Top-plans
Top-plan is a method of documenting the features as well as the loci that are excavated in a trench. In such a top-plan, the distribution of various loci is illustrated.Top-plans are prepared several times in a single day or once in a day depending upon the need. Whenever a new locus is excavated, new top-plans have to be prepared.
Plotting of Features and Artifacts
Recording the position and orientation of the artifacts, features and structures found in a context is very important. In the context of prehistoric sites and lithic contexts, point plotting,i.e. plotting the position of the artifacts and their orientation is done (in situ) before removing and packing them. Photography and photogrammetry could also be used for this purpose.
Fig. 5. Plotting of Artifacts at Isampur Karnataka, Courtesy: K.Paddayya Harris Matrix
HarrisMatrix is an illustrative feature used for illustrating the relationships among the various loci or layers excavated at a site. This system was developed by Edward Harris and hence it is known as Harris Matrix. It visually conveysthe loci relationships -- which loci are earlier, later and contemporary.
Photography and Videography
Photography is another important component of documentation in the surface survey as well as excavations. The photographic documentation is a visual documentation that can bring the reality in front of the people who are not present during the excavation. Words or verbal descriptions alone are not enough in the documentation of excavation, and the visual documentation, video documentation could help third parties to understand the site and features even much long after the excavations. Any amount of verbal description may not equal a single photograph. Photographic documentation is simple and easy to understand unlike text documentation. Photography has become an important tool nowadays. Visual documentation is useful for the public and exhibitions
Photo documentation, before and after the excavation of a feature, and also at various stages of digging,are important. Maintaining a database and references of photographs is essential for the east of date retrieval and use.
In situ photography is also important; and before lifting the artifacts out of their contexts, photography has to be done in ‘in situ’ position. Both vertical and top views of the structures help to obtain 3 D view of the structures and objects.
Earlier tall stands made of wood were used for aaerial view photography, but aerial photography droneare used instead of stands nowadays.Photography in the early morning and late evening, depending upon the sunlight would give better results. Keeping the excavated area clean and having proper lighting and proper scalesare all important in photography. It is better to employ professional photographers. However, considering the cost of the excavation multi-tasking can also be done in the photo documentation of the sites. A trench supervisor may also get photos of the features in a trench, even if a project had main photographer.
Fig.6Aerial photography drone Courtesy: http://mydronelab.com, Jack Brown
Videography can also be done nowadays very easily. It gives a better mode of data documentation and elaboration than photography.
Early in the field surveys archaeologists used to document the site data and the information offered by people as a written account. Recording thesite and the data supplied by the local people through video can be a more authentic method and for presenting the data source to various people and academicians.
Another important point is taking photos with details of the contexts and date of the photography written on a pad or board. This can help accurate identification of photos, when one has to deal with thousands of excavation photos.
Arikamedu Excavation by Wheeler
Illustrations: Line Drawings of Features and Architecture
Line drawings of various features found in the excavation are also very important.Although photographs are available line drawings are important in the documentation of the excavated
sites. Line drawings bring out the architectures and features more prominently than photographs.
Architectural Documentations
Architectural documentation would require separate datasheetsfor capturing the data on the buildings and structures. Preparation of plans and top-plans, section and elevation is important in architectural drawings.
Section Drawings
Drawing of the excavated sections is another useful documentation carried out in the end of an archaeological excavation. Here, the various sedimentary layers, pits and other features as seen on the sections of the trench are illustrated as line drawings. Section drawing can be illustrating features better than the photographs. Sometimes there is a danger of creating arbitrary lines in the section drawings. Photos and line drawings may also be combined in the section drawings.
Fig.7. Section drawing at Pattanam, Kerala Courtesy: KCHR and P.J. Cherian
Fig.8. Layers Market at Pattanam Courtesy: KCHR and P.J. Cherian Material Culture Documentation
Documentation of the material culture from an excavation is very important. The documentation of ceramic, lithic and other artifacts is useful
as a method of recording
for classifying cultural periods and chronology.
for building typology, artifacts, lithic and ceramic sequence.
Ceramic Recording
Ceramic recording involves describing and illustrating the ceramics that are found in the excavations. A brief outline of ceramic documentation is provided here. For a detailed account of ceramic study and documentation, the following publications may be consulted:
Rice 1987, Sinopoli 1991, Orton et al. 1993.
The ceramic documentation is used for classification, typology and to understand the nature of activities across the site, and to broadly to understand the behavioural patterns.
The ceramic vessels have rim, body, base and neck. On the surface they may have slip, decoration and paintings.
The ceramics from the sites can be studied for the classification of wares (Painted Grey Ware, Black and Red ware), based on clay, colour and vessel forms, and their distribution.Rim, neck, body, base, spout, ring-foot, levigation, glazing, loop handle, ledge are some of the key terms associated with ceramic description.
The drawing of the rims and profiles can help understand the cultural classification.
Measurement of rim diameter, size, describing the colour and surface treatment on the interior and exterior, prefiring and post firing marks andcount weight by ware, individual sherds are important.
The ceramic vessel forms can be signature of a particular culture. The ceramic data is essential for the creation of typological sequence in a region and for defining cultures spatially and temporally.
There are also attempts at automation of ceramic drawings and they have not become fully successful yet. However, after drawing the manual outline, software could be used to enhance the output.
Fig. 9. Tools for Pottery Drawing, Profile Gauge, Caliper, Set square and engineer’s square Collett 2012.
Fig. 10.The rim diameter chart. Source: http://potsherd.net/atlas/
Fig.11. Pottery drawing tools, Courtesy: https://trendlesproject.com/2015/02/10/pottery- drawing-class/
Steps in Ceramic Vessel form Recording
A rim sherd is selected.
The diameter of the rim sherd is checked using the diameter chart.
The profile (from the rim up to preserved/broken edge) is measured using the set square and a scale.
Then the diameter marked on the horizontal line and a vertical line is drawn in the centre.
On the left end of the diameter, the section of the rim is drawn; and on the right end the outer profile is drawn.
Grooves and decorations and other marks are drawn.
The drawing may be done on graph sheet or white sheet
Then it can be drawn on a tracing/white sheet and scanned for improving the output.
In some of the illustrations, only the left section part is drawn. In the British system, the section is presented on the left and in the American system the section is drawn on the right.
Rim Diameter Chart
Problems in Ceramic recording
Too tiny sherds do not produce accurate rim diameter
Tiny sherds may be part of some other features, which may be mistaken as the mouth or rim of a vessel.
Problems in assuming the shape of the base or bottom portion of vessels
Count of pottery alone is not enough, weight of the ceramic sherds have to be measured.
Lithic Recording
Lithic documentations and study have become complicated process nowadays, aslithic studies have evolved as a separate, specialised branch of study with archaeology. Here, a brief outline of lithic documentation is provided, and for a detailed account of lithic study and documentation, the following publications may be consulted: Leakey, L.S.B. 1958, Sankalia, H.D. 1964.; Semenov, S.A. 1964, Cotterell, B. and J. Kamminga 1987, Dibble, H. and A.
Debenath. 1994, Whittaker, J.C 1994 Whittaker 2004. Andrefsky 2005.
The purpose of lithic study is to understand the cultural and functional activities and also to comprehend the development of thecognitionof humans and their ancestors. The classifications and terms such as industry, Leavallois, Acheulian, micro debitage, flakes, cores, platform angle, dorsal and ventral surfaces, bulb of percussion, platform angles are involved in the lithic studies, which are covered in the paper on prehistory. Advanced statistical analyses are done for the characterization of an assemblage and industry.
Experimental archaeology is also undertaken for understanding the lithic production and distribution.
The drawings of lithic artifacts have to display the flaked surface, cortex/natural pebble surface, pitting marks. Nowadays 3D imaging tools and software are used, for the documentation and analysis of artifacts (Mananiet al. 2016).
Fig.11. Lithic Flake parts Source: Martingell, Hazel and Alan Saville 1988.
Fig.12. Features of a Flake Wikimedia Commons Attribution: José-Manuel Benito Álvarez
Fig.13.l Drawing of Lithic Artifact, Isampur Source: Paddayya et al. 2001
Antiquity Register
Antiquity register is documentation of the artifacts found in the excavation. Antiquity register is also an important document of the excavations. It may have the following parameters.
Sl.No, date, context, trench, locus, layer, depth, object, material, colour, dimensions and photography. A computer database is also essential for antiquities. Since the antiquarian law of India demands the antiquities found in an excavation have to be registered. But the same materials would be documented by the specialists in a detailed manner, which would be for archaeological interpretations.Proper storage of antiquities in boxes with proper labels are other points to be noted.
Ceramic Register
Ceramic register is another valuable document. Sometimes, ceramic assistants are employed in for this purpose.In this register the ceramic classifications,their weight, types, count and other features of pottery are recorded. A ceramic specialist would undertake a much more detailed classification of the ceramics from an excavated site.
Other Registers
Depending upon the type of materials excavated various registers can be maintained.
Classification of such materials is important, since they may be studied by the specialists.
Archaeozoological Register: Animal bones found in an excavation may be registered before the samples are sent to the archaeozoologists
Archaeobotanical registers: The botanical remains that are excavated or collected from the site may be registered at this site.
Metallurigcal Register: The objects related to metal smelting/working from the site has may be registered.
Three dimensional recording
Three dimensional recording is a method of documenting the position of objects. Documents the position of an artefact in relation to the Trench Datum and it includes the distance along the boundary line of the trench, across the trench in the interior and the depth. This is described by R.E.M. Wheeler. However, nowadays three dimensional recording refers to the digital recording of objects and architectures and excavations using advanced equipments.
Digital Documentation
Digitaldocumentation has become inevitable nowadays with the advancement of InformationTechnology. Instead of paper based photos, digital photos are capturedand the image editing software and facilities have also enhanced the photo production. It is important to take high resolution images at the excavation sites and the images have to be archived before editing them. Since online databases and online journals have become popular, digital recording has become inevitable. They tools and software help recording, capturing and enhancing the digital data very efficiently. The antiquity registers,datasheets and ceramic registers can be created in digital media.
There are various forms of digital documentations.
Digital Images
Database, XL sheets
Online databases
Scanning of documents
Advanced Method of Digital Documentation of Excavation
GPS, Total station, GPR can also be used for documentation of the site more
accurately.GPR is used for surveying and recording the sub-surface structures and features.
Apart from the conventional photography and videography, 3D imaging of the excavation and the object is an advanced method. But these methods can consume a lot of resources.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) may also be used for the documentation and archiving of the excavated materials.Laser or Structured-light scanners are used for 3D documentation and even CT scanners are used for archaeological and Anthropological materials.
Fig. 14.3D documentation ScannerSource: Faro
Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is a method of using the photography for the measurement of building and material culture and obtaining drawings to scale. Photogrammetry is a cost effective means for creating high resolution 3D record of archaeological artifacts with the help of a camera and software. Both vertical and oblique photographs are essential for this purpose.
Thompson-Watts plotter is used for rectifying the photos with different scales in aerial photography. It has been used lithic study as well.
Fig. 15. Thompson-Watts plotter Source:
http://www.militarysurvey.org.uk/Historic%20Archive/Equipment%20&%20Techniques/Air%2 0Survey/Miscellaneous/6.%20Thompson%20Watts%20Plotter%20-%20SMS.jpg
Human Resource
Division of labour is essential for the successful excavation of an archaeological site. The duties and responsibilities of various persons responsible for an excavation have to be clearly specified, so that the duties are executed properly.
Trench Supervisor
Trench supervisor is responsible for the complete supervision of the excavation in a trench.
Trench supervisor’s duties include the maintenance/preparation of
Trench documentation records
Trench notebook
Datasheets
Top-plans
Photography
Data of relevant materials
The report ofthe trench
Trench Assistants
The trench assistants can help trench supervisor in the documentation of the excavations and features in a trench.They can also help the trench supervisor in the interpretation through discussions.
Photographer and Videographer
Photography and videography are important visual documentation of archaeological site, monuments and excavations. Photography and videography of the site and objectsare the essential features of archaeological documentation. The maintenance of a photo register and photo databaseis also essential for the ease of access and retrieval. Software programs are available of managing the digital image data. GIS (Geographic Information System) could also be a useful platformin this context.
Surveyors
Surveyor and mapping of the site is very important. The surveyors help in the mapping of the sites and preparation of various drawings, various top-plans and maintain Geo-coordinates.
Total station and advanced GPS systems can also be used for the documentation of sites and the preparation of maps.
Draughtsperson
Line drawings are equally important as photography for documenting and illustrating various buildings and structures that are excavated. More than photographs, line drawings and building drawings and planscan bring out certain features and they are better,if prepared by the specialists. However, nowadays software programmes such as Photoshop and AutoCAD, and photogrammetry can be used for the preparation of accurate drawings and maps.
Preparation of line drawings of buildings (top-plans, section and elevation) and features
Preparation of maps of various features and buildings and the site
Ceramic drawings – drawing of ceramics for typology studies
Drawing of artifacts – all kinds of artifacts and their various profiles
Drawing of lithic artifacts – illustration of stone artifacts of prehistoric and historical period
Fig. 16.Top plan of houses at Inamgaon Courtesy: Deccan College, H.D. Sankalia, M.K.
Dhavalikar and Z.D. Anzari
Antiquity Registrar
Antiquity registrar is responsible for the documentation, maintenance and safekeeping of antiquities. The basic data collection on the antiquities such as measurement of dimensions, size, and weightare done by antiquity registrar. However, the specialists may subject the antiquities for detailed analysis for the preparation of the report and for interpretation of past cultures. According to the Antiquarian laws of the Government of India, the list of the antiquities has to be submitted to the Archaeological Survey of India.
Ceramic Specialist
Ceramic specialist is required for the documentation of the ceramics, especially from the later prehistoric and historical sites, as these sites would yield a large volume of ceramics. A datasheets have to be prepared for the documentation of the ceramics and their characteristics.
The person in-charge of the ceramics or ceramic specialists is responsible for the:
Documentation of ceramics
Storage and maintenance of ceramic materials
Maintenance ofthe ceramic register
It depends upon of the nature of organization and delegation of duties of the specific excavation project.
Other Specialists
Apart from the professionals who are discussed above, several other specialists are necessary for studying the excavated materials.Their necessity depends upon the nature of the materials excavated. A director or principal investigator of an excavation may not have
the expertise to study all the materials that are excavated. Hence, the service of the specialists has to be requested.
Physical anthropologists – are required if a site yields human skeletal materials.
Geologists – are required to study the geological samples
Geoarchaeologists are essential to understand the geoarchaeological contexts and the sediments and environmental archaeology.
Archaeozoologists are required to study the animal bones that are excavated.
Palaeobotanists are essential to study the botanical remains and to collect data on the phytoliths.
Metallurgistswould undertake the studies on the various metals
Epigraphists would study the inscriptions
Numismatists would study the coins Artist’s Impression
An artist impression of the excavated site with the inputs from the excavators is also essential in an archaeological excavation.Although it cannot be considered very essential and accurate, artist’simpression can be very important in the visualization of the ancient way of life. In the exhibition and public awareness, it can be very useful. As the excavated sites produce fragmentary ruins, reconstructions could help in the interpretations and visualization. Therefore, an artist could also be involved event at the time of the excavation process. Digital reconstruction is also possible with inputs from the excavators.
Fig. 17.Artist’s impression of Lothal, Courtesy: ASI
Fig.18. Digital Reconstruction of Dholavira, Courtesy: ASI
Other important issues
There are several other issues involved in the accuracy of documentation. Professionalism, budget and finance, team composition, and motivation through proper credit and authorship may assist proper recording, documentation and publication of excavation reports.
7. Summary
Archaeological excavation is a systematic process of digging of natural and cultural layers to document, understand and recover the material remains, ecofacts and to collect information on their contexts in order to understand the past human behaviour.
The recording of the excavation is the most significant aspect of an excavation.Recording is an important component of excavation, as the popular saying refers to “excavation as documented destruction.”Different forms of recording are essential in archaeological excavations.Site notebook, trench notebook, antiquity register, ceramic register, maps, top- plans and section drawings are the important components of recording of archaeological excavations
Datasheets are used nowadays for documenting the excavations, but at the same time, detailed descriptive documentation of excavated features is very important.
Various tools such as cameras, video cameras, 3D imaging devices and computers are essential for documentation. Different people have to be allotted specific duties for the documentation of the excavations. Trench supervisors, photographers, videographers and draughtspersons are required to properly document the excavations.
Various documentation procedures involving datasheets, antiquity registers, site notebooks, trench notebooks,digital databases and digitization of excavation documentationare also useful for easy access, use analysis of the excavated data. The online database can be used by experts who are faraway from the area where the materials are stored.
