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OECD‑FAO Agricultural Outlook 2019‑2028

SPECIAL FOCUS: LATIN AMERICA

OECD‑FAO Agricultural Outlook 2019‑

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OECD FAO Agricultural

Outlook 2019 2028

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do not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD countries, or the governments of the FAO members.

This document, as well as any data and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The names of countries and territories used in this joint publication follow the practice of the FAO.

Please cite this publication as:

OECD/FAO (2019), OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2019-2028, OECD Publishing, Paris/Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

https://doi.org/10.1787/agr_outlook-2019-en

ISBN 978-92-64-31245-6 (print) ISBN 978-92-64-31246-3 (pdf) OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook ISSN 1563-0447 (print) ISSN 1999-1142 (online) FAO

ISBN 978-92-5-131374-9 (Print and PDF)

The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.

The position of the United Nations on the question of Jerusalem is contained in General Assembly Resolution 181(II) of 29 November 1947, and subsequent resolutions of the General Assembly and the Security Council concerning this question.

Photo credits: Cover © Original cover concept designed by Juan Luis Salazar. Adaptations by OECD.

Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found on line at: www.oecd.org/about/publishing/corrigenda.htm.

© OECD/FAO 2019

You can copy, download or print OECD content for your own use, and you can include excerpts from OECD publications, databases and multimedia products in your own documents, presentations, blogs, websites and teaching materials, provided that suitable acknowledgement of OECD as source and copyright owner is given. All requests for public or commercial use and translation rights should be submitted to rights@oecd.org. Requests for permission to photocopy portions of this material for public or commercial use shall be

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Foreword

Global agriculture has evolved into a highly diverse sector, with operations that range from small subsistence farms to large multinational holdings. Farmers’ products are sold fresh in local markets, but also across the world through sophisticated and modern value chains.

Beyond their traditional role of providing humankind with food, farmers are important custodians of the natural environment and have become producers of renewable energy.

In order to meet the high expectations society places on agriculture, public and private decision makers require reliable information on the likely trends of global demand, supply, trade and prices and the factors driving them. To this end, the OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook is an annual reference that provides a comprehensive medium-term baseline scenario for agricultural commodity markets at national, regional and global levels.

In addition to providing a plausible baseline scenario for agriculture markets in the coming decade, the Outlook identifies a widening set of risks to agricultural markets that can help policy makers better anticipate and manage them. These include the spread of plant and animal diseases and the growing risk of extreme climatic events, as well as possible supply disruptions from growing trade tensions.

This OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2019-2028 foresees that the demand for agricultural products will grow by 15% over the coming decade. The way in which this demand is met will determine the sector’s impact on the natural resource base, notably land, water, and biodiversity. Rising food production also comes with higher greenhouse gas emissions, with nearly one quarter of all emissions coming from agriculture, forestry and land use change.

Unsurprisingly, there are now mounting pressures on agriculture to reduce its carbon footprint, and to help mitigate climate change.

At the same time, roughly two billion people derive their livelihoods from agriculture.

Many of the world’s poorest people will continue to live in rural areas and will depend on agriculture for an important share of their incomes. Some 820 million people worldwide remain undernourished, while millions suffer from other forms of malnutrition, such as micronutrient deficiencies and obesity.

This report supports the work of our Members in their efforts to end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture by 2030, as committed under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and in the 2015 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change Paris Agreement.

This year’s Outlook includes a special chapter that focuses on the prospects and challenges for agriculture in Latin America and the Caribbean. While highly diverse, the region has become the largest exporter of agricultural commodities in the world and is expected to further reinforce this position in the coming decade. The region is also home to 57% of the world’s primary forests and the source of 40-50% of the world’s biodiversity. Tailored and concerted policy responses are needed across Latin America and the Caribbean to create an enabling environment that supports rural livelihoods, while protecting the natural resource base and promoting mutually beneficial trade relationships with food importing

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This report complements wider collaborative efforts between our two organisations, including through the G20 and G7 processes. In particular, the Agricultural Market Information System (AMIS) complements this medium-term Outlook by providing short- term information that contributes to enhanced market transparency and better co-ordination of policy responses for food security.

We hope that this new edition of our joint Outlook will once again provide our Member governments, as well as all other stakeholders, with useful forward-looking market information and analysis. These insights can empower countries to make informed policy decisions that will benefit their citizens and protect the natural resources that they depend upon. Our organisations are committed to working together to ensure a sustainable use of our natural resource base for improved global food security and nutrition, and to making a meaningful contribution to help achieve the SDGs.

Angel Gurría Secretary-General

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

José Graziano da Silva Director-General Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

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Acknowledgements

The Agricultural Outlook 2019-2028 is a collaborative effort of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. It brings together the commodity, policy and country expertise of both organisations and input from collaborating member countries to provide an annual assessment of prospects for the coming decade of national, regional and global agricultural commodity markets.

The Agricultural Outlook is prepared jointly by the OECD and FAO Secretariats.

At the OECD, the baseline projections and Outlook report were prepared by members of the Trade and Agriculture Directorate: Marcel Adenäuer, Jonathan Brooks (Head of Division), Koen Deconinck, Annelies Deuss, Armelle Elasri (publication co-ordinator), Hubertus Gay (Outlook co-ordinator), Céline Giner, Gaëlle Gouarin, Claude Nenert, Ana- Maria Muresan and Grégoire Tallard of the Agro-Food Trade and Markets Division, and for fish and seafood by James Innes of the Natural Resources Policy Division. Csaba Gaspar and Sophia Gnych of the OECD Seed Schemes provided input for the box on plant breeding innovations. The OECD Secretariat is grateful for the contributions provided by visiting experts Abdi Ali (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada), Aline Gomes de Almeida Gastardelo (Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply), and Yu Wen (Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences). The partial stochastic modelling builds on work by the Economics of Agriculture Unit of the European Commission's Joint Research Centre; Thomas Chatzopoulos and Ignacio Pérez Domínguez provided a box on extreme climate events. The organisation of meetings and publication preparation were provided by Kelsey Burns, Helen Maguire, and Michèle Patterson. Technical assistance in the preparation of the Outlook database was provided by Karine Lepron, Eric Espinasse and Frano Ilicic. Many other colleagues in the OECD Secretariat and member country delegations provided useful comments on earlier drafts of the report.

At the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the baseline projections and Outlook report were prepared by members of the Trade and Markets Division (EST) under the leadership of Boubaker Ben-Belhassen (EST Division Director) and Josef Schmidhuber (EST Division Deputy Director) with the overall guidance of Máximo Torero (Assistant Director-General, Economic and Social Development Department) and by the Economic and Social Development Department Management team. The core projections team consisted of: Francesca Biasetton, Katia Covarrubias, Sergio René Araujo Enciso, Holger Matthey (Team Leader), Svetlana Mladenovic and Javier Sanchez Alvarez. For fish and seafood, the team consisted of Stefania Vannuccini and Adrienne Egger from the FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, with technical support from Pierre Charlebois.

Advice on fishmeal and fish oil issues was provided by Enrico Bachis from the Marine Ingredients Organisation (IFFO). Insights and support regarding FAOSTAT data was provided by Salar Tayyib, Carola Fabi and Alicia English. Commodity expertise was

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Wickramasinghe and Di Yang. The box on trade-offs between animal feed and food was provided by Anne Mottet and Alessandra Falcucci, We thank visiting expert Tracy Davids from the Bureau for Food and Agricultural Policy at the University of Pretoria. Research assistance and database preparation were provided by David Bedford, Julie Claro, Harout Dekermendjian, Annamaria Giusti, Kotomi Honda, Yanyun Li, Lavinia Lucarelli, Emanuele Marocco and Marco Milo. This edition also benefited from comments made by other colleagues from FAO and member country institutions. Araceli Cardenas, Ettore Vecchione, Yongdong Fu, Jessica Mathewson, and Raffaella Rucci provided invaluable assistance with publication and communication issues.

Chapter 2 of the Outlook, “Latin American Agriculture: Prospects and challenges”, was prepared by the Secretariats at FAO and OECD. Drafting was led by Salomón Salcedo Baca. The box on obesity was provided by Céline Giner, Aline Gomes de Almeida Gastardelo and Ana-Maria Muresan from the OECD Secretariat. Sabine Altendorf and Giuseppe Bonavita from the FAO Secretariat prepared the box on bananas and tropical fruits.

Finally, information and feedback provided by the International Cotton Advisory Committee, International Dairy Federation, International Fertilizer Association, International Grains Council, International Sugar Organization, Marine Ingredients Organisation (IFFO) and World Association of Beet and Cane Growers is gratefully acknowledged. The OECD Secretariat also acknowledges input from the International Seed Federation on the box on plant breeding innovation.

The complete Agricultural Outlook, including the fully documented Outlook database that includes historical data and projections, can be accessed through the OECD-FAO joint internet site: www.agri-outlook.org. The published Agricultural Outlook 2019-2028 is available in the OECD’s iLibrary.

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Table of contents

Foreword ... 3

Acknowledgements ... 5

Abbreviations and acronyms ... 14

Currencies ... 16

Summary table for country grouping in the Statistical Annex ... 17

Executive Summary ... 19

Latin America and the Caribbean ... 20

Chapter 1. Overview ... 22

1.1. Introduction ... 23

1.2. Prices ... 26

1.3. Consumption ... 28

1.4. Production ... 40

1.5. Trade ... 52

1.6. Risks and uncertainties ... 57

Notes ... 67

Chapter 2. Latin American Agriculture: Prospects and challenges ... 70

2.1. Introduction ... 71

2.2. Agricultural development ... 73

2.3. Medium-term outlook ... 83

2.4. Strategic challenges and policy options ... 99

2.5. Conclusion ... 112

Note ... 113

References ... 114

Annex 2.A. The prevalence of obesity in Latin America and the Caribbean ... 120

Chapter 3. Cereals ... 125

3.1. Market situation ... 126

3.2. Projection highlights ... 126

3.3. Prices ... 128

3.4. Production ... 128

3.5. Consumption ... 131

3.6. Trade ... 137

3.7. Main issues and uncertainties ... 140

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4.2. Projection highlights ... 143

4.3. Prices ... 145

4.4. Oilseed production ... 145

4.5. Oilseed crush and production of vegetable oils and protein meal ... 147

4.6. Vegetable oil consumption ... 148

4.7. Protein meal consumption... 149

4.8. Trade ... 150

4.9. Main issues and uncertainties ... 152

Chapter 5. Sugar ... 154

5.1. Market situation ... 155

5.2. Projection highlights ... 155

5.3. Prices ... 157

5.4. Production ... 158

5.5. Consumption ... 161

5.6. Trade ... 163

5.7. Main issues and uncertainties ... 164

Chapter 6. Meat ... 166

6.1. Market situation ... 167

6.2. Projection highlights ... 167

6.3. Prices ... 169

6.4. Production ... 170

6.5. Consumption ... 175

6.6. Trade ... 177

6.7. Main issues and uncertainties ... 178

Notes ... 179

Chapter 7. Dairy and dairy products ... 180

7.1. Market situation ... 181

7.2. Projection highlights ... 181

7.3. Prices ... 182

7.4. Production ... 183

7.5. Consumption ... 186

7.6. Trade ... 186

7.7. Main issues and uncertainties ... 188

Note ... 189

Chapter 8. Fish and seafood ... 190

8.1. Market situation ... 191

8.2. Projection highlights ... 191

8.3. Prices ... 192

8.4. Production ... 194

8.5. Consumption ... 196

8.6. Trade ... 199

8.7. Main issues and uncertainties ... 201

Notes ... 203

Chapter 9. Biofuels ... 204

9.1. Market situation ... 205

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9.2. Projection highlights ... 205

9.3. Prices ... 207

9.4. Production and use ... 207

9.5. Trade ... 215

9.6. Main issues and uncertainties ... 216

Notes ... 216

Chapter 10. Cotton ... 217

10.1. Market situation ... 218

10.2. Projection highlights ... 218

10.3. Prices ... 220

10.4. Production ... 221

10.5. Consumption ... 222

10.6. Trade ... 224

10.7. Main issues and uncertainties ... 225

Notes ... 226

Annex A. Glossary ... 227

Annex B. Methodology ... 231

Annex C. Statistical Annex ... 236

Tables Table 2.1. Average farm size change in selected Latin American countries, most recent census observations ... 78

Table 2.2. Nutrition policies in Latin America ... 82

Table 2.3. Contribution of agriculture to GHG emissions, selected countries ... 106

Table 3.1. Rice per capita consumption ... 136

Table 9.1. Biofuel production ranking and key feedstocks ... 208

Table 9.2. EU policy framework for biofuels ... 210

Figures Figure 1.1. Market conditions for key commodities ... 24

Figure 1.2. Average annual real price change for agricultural commodities, 2019-28 ... 26

Figure 1.3. Medium-term evolution of commodity prices, in real terms ... 27

Figure 1.4. Long-term evolution of commodity prices, in real terms ... 27

Figure 1.5. Decomposition tree of main agricultural commodity uses and demand drivers ... 29

Figure 1.6. Global use of major commodities ... 29

Figure 1.7. Regional contribution to food use of select commodities ... 30

Figure 1.8. Contribution of population to growth in food use ... 31

Figure 1.9. Contribution of food groups to total daily per capita calorie availability ... 32

Figure 1.10. Contribution of protein sources to total daily per capita availability ... 33

Figure 1.11. Per cent change of food group in daily per capita calorie availability, 2016-18 to 2028 .. 36

Figure 1.12. Non-ruminant feed use and meat production over the outlook period ... 38

Figure 1.13. Biofuel demand developments in major regions ... 39

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Figure 1.17. Distribution of global agricultural land ... 42

Figure 1.18. Change in agricultural land use, 2016-18 to 2028 ... 43

Figure 1.19. Growth in crop production ... 44

Figure 1.20. Maize production ... 44

Figure 1.21. Growth in global livestock production ... 47

Figure 1.22. Sources of meat production growth, by region ... 48

Figure 1.23. Dairy production, yield, and animal numbers ... 49

Figure 1.24. Aquaculture and capture fisheries ... 50

Figure 1.25. Direct GHG emissions from agriculture ... 52

Figure 1.26. Agricultural trade balances by region, in constant value ... 53

Figure 1.27. Ukraine and the Russian Federation: Share of global exports ... 54

Figure 1.28. Ratio of net imports to domestic utilisation ... 55

Figure 1.29. Intra-regional trade shares for CPTPP in 2016 ... 56

Figure 1.30. Range of outcomes for maize in 2028... 59

Figure 1.31. Range of outcomes for the world maize price in 2028, by type of shock ... 59

Figure 1.32. World population growth ... 63

Figure 1.33. Per capita income growth ... 65

Figure 1.34. Annual GDP growth rates 2019-2028 ... 65

Figure 2.1. Annual total factor productivity growth in agriculture, weighted averages, 1991-2015 ... 74

Figure 2.2. Cereal and soybean harvested area in Latin America and the Caribbean ... 76

Figure 2.3. Livestock stocks by Latin American and the Caribbean sub-region ... 77

Figure 2.4. Prevalence of adults being overweight or obese across the world ... 80

Figure 2.5. Focus on the shares of fats, free sugar and proteins in the nutritional composition of diets in the Latin America and the Caribbean region ... 81

Figure 2.6. Per capital meat consumption in Latin America and the Caribbean ... 84

Figure 2.7. Annual growth in demand for key commodity groups in Latin America and the Caribbean... 85

Figure 2.8. Sources of growth in crop production in Latin America and the Caribbean ... 85

Figure 2.9. Cereal production in Latin America and the Caribbean ... 86

Figure 2.10. Distribution of soybean production in Latin America and the Caribbean ... 87

Figure 2.11. Latin America and the Caribbean net exports of bananas and tropical fruit ... 91

Figure 2.12. Livestock production in Latin America and the Caribbean ... 93

Figure 2.13. Capture and aquaculture production in Latin America and the Caribbean ... 94

Figure 2.14. Agricultural trade balances by Latin American and the Caribbean regions, in constant value ... 95

Figure 2.15. Share of exports in domestic production in Latin America and the Caribbean ... 96

Figure 2.16. Cereal trade balance in Latin America and the Caribbean ... 97

Figure 2.17. Destination of Latin America and the Caribbean agricultural and fishery exports by USD value ... 98

Figure 2.18. Budget support and GSSE relative to Total Budgetary Allocations to the sector, 2015- 17 or latest year ... 100

Figure 2.19. Composition of the Producer Support Estimate by country, 2015-17 or latest year ... 100

Figure 2.20. Livestock GHG emissions by region in 2017 ... 107

Figure 2.21. Brazil: Sources of direct agricultural emissions ... 107

Figure 3.1. World cereal prices ... 127

Figure 3.2. Global growth rates of harvested areas and yields for cereals ... 129

Figure 3.3. Regional contribution of growth in cereals production, 2016-18 to 2028 ... 130

Figure 3.4. World cereal stocks and stocks-to-use ratios ... 132

Figure 3.5. Cereal use in developed and developing countries ... 133

Figure 3.6. The general functioning of public stockholding programmes ... 134

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Figure 3.7. Percentage change in producer prices ... 135

Figure 3.8. Global cereals trade volumes by commodity ... 137

Figure 3.9. World export shares of major exporting regions ... 138

Figure 3.10. Global maize stocks and stocks-to-use ratios ... 141

Figure 4.1. Exports of oilseeds and oilseed products by region ... 144

Figure 4.2. Evolution of world oilseed prices ... 145

Figure 4.3. Oilseed production by region ... 146

Figure 4.4. Protein meal and vegetable oil production by type ... 147

Figure 4.5. Per capita food availability of vegetable oil in selected countries ... 149

Figure 4.6. Share of vegetable oil used for biodiesel production ... 149

Figure 4.7. Average annual growth in protein meal consumption and animal production (2019-28) . 150 Figure 4.8. Share of exports in total production of oilseeds and oilseed products for the top three exporting countries ... 151

Figure 5.1. Supply and demand of sugar by region ... 156

Figure 5.2. Evolution of world sugar prices ... 157

Figure 5.3. World sugar crops production ... 159

Figure 5.4. Sugar production classified by crop ... 160

Figure 5.5. Per capita sugar demand in major countries and regions ... 161

Figure 5.6. Share of per capita HFCS in sweetener consumption for major consuming countries ... 162

Figure 5.7. Sugar exports for major countries and regions ... 163

Figure 5.8. Sugar imports for major countries and regions ... 164

Figure 6.1. World meat prices ... 168

Figure 6.2. Feed cost index and meat to feed nominal price ratios ... 170

Figure 6.3. Growth of meat production by region and meat type... 171

Figure 6.4. Countries with the greatest share of additional meat production by meat type ... 172

Figure 6.5. US beef cow inventory ... 173

Figure 6.6. China pigmeat production ... 175

Figure 6.7. Per capita meat consumption by region ... 176

Figure 6.8. Meat imports in selected CPTPP countries ... 178

Figure 7.1. Per capita consumption of processed and fresh dairy products in milk solids ... 182

Figure 7.2. Dairy product prices ... 183

Figure 7.3. Annual changes in inventories of dairy herd and yields between 2019 and 2028 ... 184

Figure 7.4. Milk production and yield in selected countries and regions ... 185

Figure 7.5. Exports of dairy products by region ... 187

Figure 7.6. Imports of dairy products by region ... 188

Figure 8.1. Contribution of aquaculture to regional fish and seafood production ... 192

Figure 8.2. World fish prices ... 193

Figure 8.3. World aquaculture and capture fisheries ... 194

Figure 8.4. Growth in world aquaculture production by species ... 196

Figure 8.5. Share of imports in food fish consumption by region ... 197

Figure 8.6. Growth in per capita fish consumption by region ... 198

Figure 8.7. Share of fishmeal and oilseed meal in feed ratio ... 199

Figure 8.8. Exports of fish for human consumption by major exporters in 2016-18 and 2028 ... 200

Figure 8.9. Imports of fish for human consumption by major importers in 2016-18 and 2028 ... 201

Figure 9.1. Biofuel demand developments in major regions ... 206

Figure 9.2. The evolution of biofuel and biofuel feedstock prices ... 207

Figure 9.3. World biofuel production from traditional and advanced feedstocks ... 209

Figure 9.4. Development of the world ethanol market ... 211

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Figure 10.1. World cotton production ... 219

Figure 10.2. World cotton prices ... 220

Figure 10.3. World cotton production, consumption, and stocks ... 221

Figure 10.4. Cotton yields and area harvested in major producing countries ... 222

Figure 10.5. Trends in consumption of textile fibres ... 223

Figure 10.6. Cotton consumption by region ... 223

Boxes Box 1.1. Is there a trade-off between animal feed and food? ... 36

Box 1.2. Innovations in plant breeding ... 45

Box 1.3. Potential effects of extreme climate events ... 57

Box 1.4. Macroeconomic and policy assumptions ... 63

Box 2.1. Agriculture in Latin America and the Caribbean – a vastly heterogeneous sector ... 72

Box 2.2. The obesity epidemic in Latin America and the Caribbean region ... 79

Box 2.3. Bananas and tropical fruits in Latin America and the Caribbean ... 89

Box 3.1. Economic effects of public stockholding policies for rice in Asia ... 134

Box 6.1. China’s assumptions for African Swine Fever ... 174

Box 9.1. Biofuels at a glance ... 208

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Abbreviations and acronyms

AFOLU Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use

AI Avian Influenza

AMIS Agricultural Market Information System AMR Antimicrobial resistance

ASF African Swine Fever

bln Billion

bln L Billion litres

BRIC Emerging economies of Brazil, Russian Federation, India and China

BRICS Emerging economies of Brazil, Russian Federation, India, China and South Africa bln t Billion metric tonnes

CA Conversion agriculture CAC Central America and Caribbean

CAP Common Agricultural Policy (European Union) CETA Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement CIAT International Center for Tropical Agriculture CIF Cost, insurance and freight

CPI Consumer Price Index

CPTPP Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership CRISPR Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats

CSA Climate-Smart Agriculture cts/lb Cents per pound c.w.e. Carcass weight equivalent DDGs Dried Distiller’s Grains

dw Dry weight

dwt Dressed carcass weight

EBA Everything-But-Arms Initiative (European Union)

ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean EISA Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (United States) El Niño Climatic condition associated with the temperature of major sea currents EMBRAPA Brazilian agricultural research institution

EPA US Environmental Protection Agency EPAs Economic Partnership Agreements

ERS Economic Research Service of the US Department for Agriculture

est Estimate

EU European Union, except the United Kingdom

EU-14 Pre-2004 members of the European Union excluding the United Kingdom FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FFV Flex-fuel Vehicles FOB Free on board (export price) FMD Foot and Mouth Disease FTA Free Trade Agreement GDP Gross domestic product GDPD Gross domestic product deflator

GHG Greenhouse gas

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GIEWS Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and Agriculture GM Genetically modified

GSSE General Services Support Estimate

ha Hectares

HFCS High fructose corn syrup

hl Hectolitre

IBGE Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica (Brazil) ICAC International Cotton Advisory Committee

IEA International Energy Agency IFA International Fertilizer Association

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IGC International Grains Council

ILUC Indirect Land Use Change IMF International Monetary Fund

INDAP El Instituto de Desarrollo Agropecuario (Chile Ministry of Agriculture Institute of Agricultural Development) IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

ISO International Sugar Organization

IUU Illegal, unreported and unregulated (fishing)

kg Kilogrammes

kha Thousand hectares kt Thousand metric tonnes

La Niña Climatic condition part of El Niño-Southern Oscillation (see Glossary)

LA Latin America

LAC Latin America and the Caribbean

lb Pound (weight)

LDCs Least Developed Countries

lw Live weight

MBM Meat and bone meal

MENA Middle East and North Africa

MERCOSUR Mercado Común del Sur / Common Market of South America Mha Million hectares

Mn Million

Mn L Million litres MPS Market Price Support Mt Million metric tonnes

NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NGO Non-governmental organization

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OIE World Organisation for Animal Health

OLS Ordinary Least Squares

OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries p.a. Per annum

PCE Private consumption expenditure PPP Purchasing power parity

PRRS Porcine Respiratory and Reproductive Syndrome PSE Producer Support Estimate

R&D Research and development

REAF Reunión Especializada en Agricultura Familiar (Specialised Forum on Family Farming RFS / RFS2 Renewable Fuels Standard in the United States, part of the Energy Policy Act rse Raw sugar equivalent

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SDG Sustainable Development Goals SEA South East Asia

SME Small and medium enterprise

SMP Skim milk powder

SPS Sanitary and Phyto sanitary measures (WTO agreement) SSA Sub-Saharan Africa

t Metric tonnes

t/ha Metric tonnes/hectare TFP Total Factor Productivity TPP Trans-Pacific Partnership tq Tel quel basis (sugar) TRQ Tariff rate quota UN The United Nations

UNECLAC UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund

US United States

USDA United States Department of Agriculture USMCA United States—Canada—Mexico Agreement

WB World Bank

WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization WMP Whole milk powder WTO World Trade Organization

Currencies

ARS Argentinean peso

AUD Australian dollars

BRL Brazilian real

CAD Canadian dollar

CLP Chilean peso

CNY Chinese yuan renminbi

EGP Egyptian pound

EUR Euro (Europe)

GDP British pound sterling

IDR Indonesian rupiah

INR Indian rupee

JPY Japanese yen

KRW Korean won

MXN Mexican peso

MYR Malaysian ringgit

NZD New Zealand dollar

PKR Pakistani rupee

RUB Russian ruble

SAR Saudi riyal

THB Thai baht

UAH Ukrainian grivna

USD US dollar

ZAR South African rand

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Summary table for country grouping in the Statistical Annex

North

America Developed Canada, United States Latin

America Developing Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Brazil, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Falkland Islands (Malvinas), French Guiana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Montserrat, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States Virgin Islands, Uruguay, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

Europe Developed Albania, Andorra, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Channel Islands, European Union1, Faroe Islands, Gibraltar, Holy See, Iceland, Isle of Man, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Montenegro, Norway, Republic of Moldova, Russian Federation, San Marino, Serbia, Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands, Switzerland, Republic of North Macedonia, Ukraine, United Kingdom

Africa Developed South Africa

Developing Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mayotte, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Reunion, Rwanda, Saint Helena (Ascension and Tristan da Cunha), Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra-Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Western Sahara, Zambia, Zimbabwe

Asia Developed Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Israel, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan

Developing Afghanistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China Hong Kong SAR, China Macao SAR, The People’s Republic of China, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, India, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Lebanon, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nauru, Nepal, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syrian Arab Republic, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Viet Nam, Yemen

Ocenania Developed Australia, New Zealand

Developing American Samoa, Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall-Islands, Micronesia (Federated States of), New Caledonia, Niue, Norfolk Island, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna Islands

LDC2 Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Niger, Rwanda, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Timor-Leste, Togo, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Vanuatu, Yemen, Zambia

BRICS Brazil, The People’s Republic of China, India, Russian Federation, South Africa 1. Refers to all current European Member states except the United Kingdom.

2. Least Developed Countries (LDC) are a subgroup of developing countries. The names of countries and territories used in this table follow the practice of the FAO.

Source: FAO, http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/area/*/E.

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Summary table for regional grouping of countries

South and East Asia Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China Hong Kong SAR, China Macao SAR, The People’s Republic of China, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, India, Indonesia, Japan, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Korea, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Viet Nam, Yemen

Latin America and Caribbean Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Brazil, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Falkland Islands (Malvinas), French Guiana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Montserrat, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States Virgin Islands, Uruguay, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

North America Canada, United States

Sub-Saharan Africa Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cabo Verde, Cameroon,

Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea- Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Réunion, Rwanda, Saint Helena (Ascension and Tristan da Cunha), Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Togo, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Western Sahara, Zambia, Zimbabwe

Eastern Europe and Central Asia Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Channel Islands, Faroe Islands, Georgia, Gibraltar, Holy See, Iceland, Isle of Man, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Montenegro, Republic of Moldova, Russian Federation, San Marino, Serbia, Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands, Tajikistan, Republic of North Macedonia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan

Western Europe European Union1, Norway, Switzerland, United Kingdom

Middle East and North Africa Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates

Oceania American Samoa, Australia ,Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati,

Marshall Islands, Micronesia (Federated States of), Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Norfolk Island, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna Islands

1. Refers to all current European Member states except the United Kingdom. The names of countries and territories used in this table follow the practice of the FAO.

Source: FAO, http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/area/*/E.

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Executive Summary

The Agricultural Outlook 2019-2028 is a collaborative effort of the OECD and FAO, prepared with input from the experts of their member governments and from specialist commodity organisations. It provides a consensus assessment of the ten-year prospects for agricultural and fish commodity markets at national, regional and global levels. This year’s edition contains a special focus on Latin America and the Caribbean.

Several years of strong supplies have reduced the international prices of most agricultural commodities, with cereal, beef and sheepmeat prices showing short-term rebounds. For nearly all commodities covered in the Outlook, real prices are projected to remain at or below current levels over the coming decade, as productivity improvements continue to outpace demand growth.

A growing global population will continue to use increasing amounts of agricultural products as food, feed and for industrial purposes. Much of the additional food demand over the coming decade will originate in regions with high population growth, in particular Sub-Saharan Africa, India, and the Middle East and North Africa.

Per-capita consumption of staple foods is expected to be stagnant as demand is saturated for most of the world’s population. Meat demand is expected to be relatively strong in the Americas, while low incomes continue to constrain meat consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa. Fresh dairy products will meet much of the demand for protein in Asia (notably India and Pakistan). More widely, per capita consumption of sugar and vegetable oils is expected to rise, driven by urbanisation and the shift to more processed and convenience foods.

A combination of excessive calorie consumption, unbalanced diets and declining activity levels imply a growing burden of overweight and obesity in various countries across the world. In many low and middle-income countries, these problems coexist with undernourishment and micronutrient deficiencies, implying a “triple burden” of malnutrition.

Robust demand for animal foods products provides incentives to expand production in the livestock sector through larger herds. Paired with assumed improvements in offtake rates, demand for animal feed will be stimulated, with feed crops such as maize and soybeans expected to increase their shares in the global crop mix. Hence, the growth in feed use of cereals is expected to exceed the expansion of food use over the coming decade.

Biofuels formed a major source of crop demand growth between 2000 and 2015, but the expansion will be lower over the coming decade, with additional demand coming mainly from Indonesia, using vegetable oil for biodiesel, and the People’s Republic of China and Brazil, using cassava and sugarcane for ethanol.

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by technological innovation. The foreseen growth in livestock production will be based on an expansion of herds, greater feed use and a more efficient use of feed. Because of the limitations in capture fisheries, nearly all projected growth in fish and seafood supply will be from aquaculture, pushing its share of total production to about 55% by 2028.

Agriculture continues to be a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions.

Direct emissions of agriculture, mostly from livestock, as well as rice and synthetic fertilisers, are expected to grow by 0.5% p.a. over the coming decade, compared with 0.7%

p.a. over the past ten years. This is lower than the growth in agricultural production, indicating a declining carbon intensity as productivity increases.

International trade will remain essential for food security in a growing number food- importing countries. It also continues to be important to incomes and livelihoods in exporting regions such as Latin America and the Caribbean, which is expected to further increase its share of global agricultural exports. The Black Sea region will consolidate its position as a leading exporter of wheat and maize, with most exports going to the Middle East and North Africa.

World agricultural markets face a range of new uncertainties that add to the traditionally high risks facing agriculture. On the supply side, these include the spread of diseases such as African Swine Fever, growing resistance to antimicrobial substances, regulatory responses to new plant breeding techniques and responses to increasingly likely extreme climatic events. On the demand side, they include evolving diets, reflecting perceptions with respect to health and sustainability issues, and policy responses to alarming trends in obesity. A further factor is the heightened uncertainty with respect to future trading agreements between several important players on world agricultural markets. An escalation of ongoing trade tensions has the potential to reduce and redirect trade, with repercussions for international and domestic markets.

Latin America and the Caribbean

This year’s special chapter focuses on Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), a region abundant in land and water that accounts for 14% of global production and 23% of the world’s exports of agricultural and fisheries commodities. Production growth is expected to slow over the coming decade; but, with 22% growth for crops and 16% for livestock products, be, respectively, seven and two percentage points faster than the global average.

Increased exports from the LAC region will limit the slowdown in production, underscoring the importance to LAC countries of trade openness at the global level. By 2028, the region will account for more than 25% of global exports in agricultural and fisheries products, underscoring the importance of trade openness at the global level.

For the majority of countries in the region, support provided to farmers is low relative to the OECD or global average, so production decisions are determined primarily by market signals. However, due to the diverse state of rural infrastructure and R&D initiatives across the region, there are differing requirements for public spending on strategic investments in agriculture’s enabling environment that could raise agricultural productivity sustainably.

Several governments in the region also face the need to invest in improving the environmental performance of the sector and reduce soil erosion, deforestation and emissions from agricultural production.

Strong growth opportunities in high value fruit and vegetable crops provide opportunities for smallholders, but policies will need to be differentiated according to their resource endowments and market potential. The ongoing feminisation of agriculture in the region

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supports the needfor targeting female farmers to improve their access education, credit and extension services.

Food security continues to be a concern in the region, with many households unable to afford the food they need. As extreme poverty has risen since 2015, ensuring income growth among the poorest communities is paramount – a challenge where agricultural development has an important role to play. The LAC region is simultaneously experiencing a rapid development in the number of people who are overweight and obese, which represents a growing public health problem. Several initiatives have been introduced to counter these trends, from the provision of public information to regulations on industry and fiscal measures. Evaluating these policies is essential, so that successful initiatives can be scaled up and extended to other countries.

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Chapter 1. Overview

This chapter provides an overview of the latest set of quantitative medium-term projections for global and national agricultural markets. The projections cover consumption, production, stocks, trade, and prices for 25 agricultural products for the period 2019 to 2028. The weakening of demand growth is expected to persist over the coming decade.

Population will be the main driver of consumption growth for most commodities, even though the rate of population growth is forecast to decline. Per capita consumption of many commodities is expected to be flat at a global level. Consequently, the slower growing demand for agricultural commodities is projected to be matched by efficiency gains in production which will keep real agricultural prices relatively flat. International trade will remain essential for food security in food-importing countries. World agricultural markets face a range of new uncertainties that add to the traditionally high risks facing agriculture.

These include the spread of diseases such as African Swine Fever and the heightened uncertainty with respect to future trading agreements between several important players on world agricultural markets.

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1.1. Introduction

The Agricultural Outlook presents a consistent baseline scenario for the evolution of agricultural and fish commodity markets at national, regional and global levels over the coming decade (2019-2028). The Outlook thus focuses on the medium term, complementing both short-term market monitoring and outlook publications and long-term projections.1

The projections in the Outlook are developed by OECD and FAO in collaboration with experts from member countries and international commodity bodies. The use of the OECD- FAO Aglink-Cosimo model links the sectors covered in the Outlook and ensures a global equilibrium across all markets. It further allows follow-up analysis, including a consideration of market uncertainties. A detailed discussion of the methodology underlying the projections as well as documentation of the Aglink-Cosimo model is available online.2 Projections by commodity are discussed in detail in the online commodity chapters.

The projections in this Outlook are influenced both by current market conditions (reviewed in Figure 1.1) and by assumptions on the macro-economic, demographic and policy environment (presented in Box 1.4 at the end of this chapter). Over the Outlook period, world population is expected to reach 8.4 billion people, with most growth concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa (+300 million people) and South Asia, notably India (+189 million people). Economic growth will be unevenly spread around the world, with strong per capita income growth in India and the People’s Republic of China (hereafter “China”) and weaker growth in Sub-Saharan Africa in particular. Despite robust per capita income growth among emerging markets, the level of income attained by 2028 is expected to remain significantly below levels in OECD countries. These and other assumptions are discussed in more detail in Box 1.4.

The projections are also subject to a number of uncertainties, discussed in detail at the end of the chapter and in each of the online commodity chapters.

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Figure 1.1. Market conditions for key commodities

Sugar: Following a record production surplus in 2017-18, a smaller surplus is estimated for 2018-19 due to unfavourable weather conditions in India, Thailand and Europe. Growth in sugar intake remains strong in many developing countries. As a result of the continued production surplus, world sugar prices were relatively depressed for much of the 2017-18 season.

Meat: Production of bovine, pig and poultry meats increased in 2018, with much of the expansion originating in the EU, the Russian Federation and the United States. Output fell in the People’s Republic of China (hereafter “China”) due to the outbreak of African Swine Fever. Prices of pig and poultry meats declined while those of bovine meat remained stable.

Current market conditions Production Index Nominal Price Index

Average 2009-2018 = 100 Average 2009-2018 = 100 Cereals: World production of cereals declined for the second

consecutive year in 2018, driven by smaller wheat and other coarse grains harvests. In contrast, the maize crop was larger.

Rice output was also higher in 2018, overtaking the previous year’s record production. Global cereal stocks fell for the first time in six years.

Oilseeds: The United States and Brazil recorded bumper crops for soybean in 2018. Demand for protein meals has tapered off given China’s tariffs on US soybeans and moves to lower the share of protein meal in feed rations. Prices peaked in the first half of 2018, but have fallen since, in part due to high stocks and market uncertainties.

60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

2016 2017 2018

Cereals production

60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

2016 2017 2018

Cereals price

60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

2016 2017 2018

Oilseeds price

60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

2016 2017 2018

Oilseeds production

60 80 100 120 140

2016 2017 2018

Sugar production

60 80 100 120 140

2016 2017 2018

White sugar price

60 80 100 120 140

2016 2017 2018

Meat production

60 80 100 120 140

2016 2017 2018

Meat price

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Note: All graphs expressed as an index where the average of the past decade (2009-2018) is set to 100. Production refers to global production volumes. Price indices are weighted by the average global production value of the past decade as measured at real international prices. More information on market conditions and evolutions by commodity can be found in the commodity snapshot tables in the Annex and the online commodity chapters.

Source: OECD/FAO (2019), “OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-outl-data-en.

StatLink 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933957232 Dairy: World milk production experienced an increase by 1.6%

in 2018, fuelled by a 3.0% increase in India and growing production in the three major dairy exporters (the European Union, New Zealand and the United States). Butter prices declined compared to the record levels of last year, while skim milk powder (SMP) prices recovered from low levels seen a year ago.

Fish: Production, trade and consumption all reached historical peaks in 2018. The growth in production was due to a slight increase in capture fisheries (mainly of anchoveta in South America) and the continued expansion of aquaculture production, at some 3-4% a year. Fish prices grew during the first part of 2018 and remain above 2017 levels for most species and products.

Biofuels: Global production increased in most major producing regions in 2018. Demand was sustained by obligatory blending and growing total fuel demand, although prices decreased due to ample supply. Decreasing price ratios of biofuels to conventional fuels resulted in additional non-mandated demand for biofuels, mainly in Brazil.

Cotton: Production fell by 3% in the 2018 marketing year as pest and weather problems plagued the major producers.

Consumption grew strongly in Bangladesh, Turkey and Viet Nam. Global stocks declined to about 8 months of world consumption. Prices have been declining but continue to be high compared to polyester, the main substitute for cotton.

60 80 100 120 140

2016 2017 2018

Milk production

60 80 100 120 140

2016 2017 2018

Dairy price

60 80 100 120 140

2016 2017 2018

Fish production

60 80 100 120 140

2016 2017 2018

Fish (traded) price

60 80 100 120 140

2016 2017 2018

Biofuel production

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2016 2017 2018

Biofuel price

60 80 100 120 140

2016 2017 2018

Cotton production

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2016 2017 2018

Cotton price

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1.2. Prices

The Outlook uses prices at main markets (e.g. US Gulf ports, Bangkok) of each commodity as international reference prices. Near-term price projections are still influenced by the effects of recent market events (e.g. droughts, policy changes), whereas in the outer years of the projection period, they are driven by fundamental supply and demand conditions.

Shocks such as droughts or recessions create variability around these price paths, which are explored through a partial stochastic analysis later in the chapter.

Figure 1.2. Average annual real price change for agricultural commodities, 2019-28

Source: OECD/FAO (2019), “OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-outl-data-en.

StatLink 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933957251

Most of the commodities covered in the Outlook are expected to see real price declines over the coming decade by around 1-2% per year (Figure 1.3), as productivity growth is expected to contribute to a gradual decline in real prices in the coming decade. Pronounced price declines are expected for beef and sheep. For beef, high prices in recent years have stimulated an expansion of the cattle inventory. Given the longer time needed to raise cattle, this will result in additional supply in the coming years, bringing prices back down. A similar process is at work for sheep prices, which increased by more than 20% in real terms between 2017 and 2018; this Outlook expects real prices for sheep meat to decline in the coming two years to their 2017 levels. For a few commodities (vegetable oil, skim and whole milk powder, ethanol) real prices are expected to be flat or increase slightly given their relatively low starting point.

Figure 1.3 puts these real price projections in the context of recent history. Prices for cereals, oilseeds, dairy and meat (among other agricultural commodities) saw strong increases between the early 2000s and 2007-14, with real prices in some cases doubling in a short period of time (Figure 1.4). Prices have fallen in recent years, however, and prices are projected to remain at or below current levels, as marginal production costs are assumed to decline further in real terms over the decade.

- 4.0 - 3.0 - 2.0 - 1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0

Wheat Maize Other coarse grains Rice Soybean Other oilseeds Vegetable oils Protein meals White sugar Raw sugar Poultry Pork Beef Sheep Butter Cheese Skim milk powder Whole milk powder Fish Ethanol Biodiesel Cotton

Cereals Oilseeds Sugar Meat Dairy Biofuels

%

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Figure 1.3. Medium-term evolution of commodity prices, in real terms

Source: OECD/FAO (2019), “OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-outl-data-en.

StatLink 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933957270 Figure 1.4. Long-term evolution of commodity prices, in real terms

Note: Historical data for soybeans, maize and beef from World Bank, "World Commodity Price Data" (1960- 1989). Historical data for pork from USDA QuickStats (1960-1989).

Source: OECD/FAO (2019), “OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook”, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-outl-data-en.

StatLink 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933957289

The expected decline in real prices is consistent with a long-term downward trend (Figure 1.4). Historical data show that agricultural commodity prices tend to be highly correlated, and tend to follow a declining trend over the long run. However, the historical data also shows the possibility of periods of volatility and high prices interrupting the long-

40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 Index (2018=100)

Cereals Dairy Meat Oilseeds

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2024 2028 Index (2018=100)

Soybeans Maize Beef Pork

References

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