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Paper-7 Module-1
Institutional Framework for Protection of Women in India
Personal details
Role Name Affiliation
Principal Investigator Prof.Sumita Parmar University of Allahabad
Paper Coordinator Dr. Kiran Gupta Associate prof.Incharge Law Centre 2 New Delhi
Content Writer/Author (CW)
Dr. Kiran Gupta &
Saloni Singh
Associate Prof. Incharge Law Centre 2 New Delhi
&
Research Scholar, University of Delhi
Content Reviewer (CR) Prof.Sumita Parmar University of Allahabad Language Editor (LE) Prof.Sumita Parmar University of Allahabad
(B) Description of Module
Items Description of Module
Subject Name Women’s Studies
Paper Name Women & Law
Module Name/
Title, description
Institutional Framework for Protection of Women in India
Module ID Paper-7 Module-1
Pre-requisites Some awareness of the social conditions ofour society today.
Objectives The objective of the study is to get oneself acquainted with the institutional framework for protection of women in India, and also to have a detailed and critical idea about their functioning .Here we will have a detailed study of the measures, initiatives and interventions undertaken by the National Commission for Women (NCW), also we will have brief idea about the functioning of state commissions for women in India, and other
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legislative initiatives to provide women friendly environment in courts in matters exclusively dealing with them in the form of establishment of Mahila courts, Family Courts and we will also study about an alternative justice de livery system for wo men in the form of Pa rivarik Mahila Lo k Adalat (PM LA) under the aegis of the Legal Services Authority Act, 1987.
Keywords Equality, Act, women, public
Institutional Framework for Protection of Women in India
Introduction
National Commission for Women
The United Nations Commission on the Status of Women in its 25th Report had recommended to all Member States to establish National Commissions or similar bodies with a mandate to review, estimate and recommend measures and priorities to ensure equality between men and women and the full integration of women in all spheres of national life.
Acting on this resolution and on the demands of several women’s organisations, the Government of India has set up a committee in 1971, known as the Committee on the Status of Women. The Committee on the Status of Women in India (CSWI) recommended the setting up of a National Commission for women to fulfill the surveillance functions to facilitate redressal of grievances and to accelerate the socio-economic development of women. Successive Committees including the National Perspective Plan for Women, 1988, recommended the constitution of an apex body for women. During 1990, the Central Government held
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consultations with NGOs, social workers and experts, regarding the structure, functions, powers, etc. of the Commission proposed to be set up.
In May, 1990, the Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha. In July, 1990, the HRD Ministry organized a National Level Conference to elicit suggestions regarding the Bill. In August, 1990 the Government moved several amendments and introduced new provisions to vest the commission with the power of a civil court. The Bill was passed and received assent of the President on 30th August, 1990. Art. 51-A of the Constitution imposes the duty on every citizen of India, to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of woman. Keeping it in mind, the National Commission for Women (NCW) Act, was passed. The NCW was set up as statutory body in January, 1992, to review the Constitutional and legal safeguards for women; recommend remedial legislative measures, facilitate redressal of grievances and advise the Government on all policy matters affecting women.
The preamble of the NCW Act provides to constitute a Commission for Women. The Commission looks after matters relating to women as it can investigate and examine all matters relating to the safeguard for women under the Constitution and other laws. It can also look into complaint and take suo moto notice of matters relating to deprivation of Women Rights. It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
Constitution and procedure of National Commission for Women:
According to Section 3 of the Act, the NCW is a statutory body constituted by the Central Government to exercise the powers conferred on, and to perform the functions, assigned to it under the NCW Act. The
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NCW consists of the following members:
(a) A chairperson, committed to the cause of women, to be nominated by the Central Government;
(b) Five Members nominated by the Central Government from amongst persons of ability, integrity and standing who have had experience in law or legislation, trade unionism, management of an industry or organization committed to increasing the employment potential of women, voluntary organizations (including women activists ); administration, economic development, health, education or social welfare.
At least one Member each shall be from amongst persons belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes respectively.
(c) A Member-Secretary nominated by the Central Government, who shall be an expert in the field of management, organization structure of sociological movement, or an officer who is a member of Civil Service of the Union or of an All-India Service or holds a Civil Post under the Union with appropriate experience.
Term of office and conditions of service of Chairperson and Members:
According to Section 4 of the Act, the Chairperson and every Member holds office for such period, not exceeding three years, as may be specified by the Central Government in this behalf. The Chairperson or a Member (other than the Member-Secretary who is a member of Civil Service of the
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Union or of an All-India Service or holds a Civil Post under the Union) may, by writing and address to the Central Government, resign from the office of Chairperson or, as the case may be, of the Member at any time.
Removal from the office:
The Chairperson or a Member of the Commission is liable to be removed by the Central Government if he/she
(a) becomes an undischarged insolvent;
(b) gets convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for an offence which in the opinion of the Central Government involves moral turpitude;
(c) becomes of unsound mind and stands so declared by a competent court;
(d) refuses to act or becomes incapable of acting;
(e) is, without obtaining leave of absence from the Commission, absent from three consecutive meetings of the Commission;
or
(f) in the opinion of the Central Government has so abused the position of Chairperson or Member as to render that person’s continuance in office detrimental to the public interest. But no person shall be removed under this clause until that person has been given a reasonable opportunity of being heard in the matter.
Committees of the Commission:
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According to Section 8 of the Act, the Commission may appoint such committees as may be necessary for dealing with such special issues as may be taken by the Commission from time to time. The Commission shall have the power to co-opt as members of any committee appointed, such number of persons, who are not Members of the Commission, as it may think fit and the persons so co-opted shall have the right to attend the meetings of the committee and take part in its proceedings but they do not have the right to vote. The persons so co-opted are entitled to receive such allowances for attending the meetings of the committee as may be prescribed.
Chairperson, Members and staff of the Commission to be public servants:
According to Section 15 of the Act, the Chairperson, the Members, officers and other employees of the Commission are deemed to be public servants within the meaning of Section 21 of IPC.
(2) Functions of the National Commission for Women:
According to Section 10 of the Act, the Commission for Women is required to perform all or any of the following functions, namely—
(a) Prime function of the Commission is to investigate and examine all matters relating to the safeguards provided for women under the Constitution and other laws.
(b) The Commission is required to present reports to the Central Government, upon the working of safeguards provided for women under the existing law, annually and at such other time, as the Commission deems fit.
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The Central Government is required to lay down all the reports referred to it before each House of Parliament along with a memorandum explaining the action taken or proposed to be taken on the recommendations relating to the Union and the reasons for the non-acceptance, if any, of any of such recommendations.
a) The Commission in such reports makes recommendations for the effective implementation of those safeguards for improving the conditions of women by the Union or any State.
b) The Commission reviews from time to time, the existing provisions of the Constitution and other laws affecting women and recommend amendments thereto so as to suggest remedial legislative measure to meet any lacunae, inadequacies or shortcomings in such legislations.
c) The Commission takes up the cases of violation of the provisions of the Constitution and of other laws relating to women with the appropriate authorities.
d) The Commission is required to look into complaints and take suo motu notice of matters relating to—(i) deprivation of women's rights; (ii) non-implementation of laws enacted to provide protection to women and also to achieve the objective of equality and development; and (iii) non-compliance of policy decisions, guidelines or instructions aimed at mitigating hardships and ensuring welfare and providing relief to women, and take up the issues arising out of such matters with appropriate authorities.
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e) The Commission calls for special studies or investigations into specific problems or situations arising out of discrimination and atrocities against women and identify the constraints so as to recommend strategies for their removal.
f) The Commission undertakes promotional and educational research so as to suggest ways of ensuring due representation of women in all spheres and identify factors responsible for impeding their advancement, such as, lack of access to housing and basic services, inadequate support services and technologies for reducing drudgery and occupational health hazards and for increasing their productivity.
g) The Commission participates and advises on the planning process of socio-economic development of women.
h) The Commission evaluates the progress of the development of women under the Union and any State.
i) The Commission inspects or cause to be inspected a jail, remand [Observation/special/child] home, women’s institution or other place of custody where women are kept as prisoners or otherwise, and take up with the concerned authorities for remedial action, if found necessary.
j) The Commission is required to maintain a fund for litigation involving issues affecting a large body of women.
k) The Commission makes periodical report to the Government on any matter pertaining to women and in particular various difficulties under which women toil.
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Where any such report or any part thereof relates to any matter with which any State Government is concerned, the Commission forwards a copy of such report or part of it to such State Government who shall cause it to be laid before the Legislature of the State along with a memorandum explaining the action taken or proposed to be taken on the recommendations relating to the State and the reasons for the non-acceptance, if any, of any of such recommendations.
The Central Government causes all such reports to be laid before each House of Parliament along with a memorandum explaining the action taken or proposed to be taken on the recommendations relating to the Union and the reasons for the non-acceptance, if any, of any of such recommendations.
(3) Powers of the Commission:
The Commission while investigating any matter relating to safeguard provided by Constitution or looking into complaints and takes suo motu notice of matters relating to deprivation of women’s rights, have all the powers of a civil court trying a suit under CPC and in particular, in respect of the following matters, namely—
a) Summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person from any part of India and examining him on oath.
b) Requiring the discovery and production of any document.
c) Receiving evidence on affidavits.
d) Requisitioning any public record or copy thereof from any court or office. [Section 10 (4)]
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e) Issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses and documents.
f) The Commission may appoint such committees as may be necessary for dealing with such special issues as may be taken by the Commission from time to time. [Section 8 (1)]
g) The Commission shall have the power to co-opt as members of any committee appointed, such number of persons, who are not Members of the Commission, as it may think fit and the persons so co-opted shall have the right to attend the meetings of the committee and take part in its proceedings but shall not have the right to vote. [Section 8 (2)]
h) The Commission regulates its own procedure and the procedure of the Committees thereof. [Section 9(2)]
i) The Commission is also authorised to inspect a Jail, Remand [Observation/Special/Children] Home, Women’s Institution or other place of custody, where women are kept or detained in custody. It can also take up for any remedial measures with concerned authorities of these custody Houses.
j) Residue matters: Any other matter which may be prescribed.
(4) Annual Report to be laid before Parliament:
The Commission prepares an annual report for each financial year in the prescribed form giving a full account of its activities during the previous financial year and forward a copy thereof to the Central Government. [Section 13]
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The Central Government causes the annual report together with a memorandum of action taken on the recommendations contained therein to be laid before the Parliament, in so far as they relate to the Central Government, and the reasons for the non-acceptance, if any, of any of such recommendations .
(5) Central Government and Commission:
According to Section 16 of the Act, the Central Government shall consult the Commission on all major policy matters affecting women.
According to Section 17 of the Act, the Central Government may by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules for carrying out the provisions of this Act.
(6) Important court interventions and inquiries by NCW:
Bhateri gang rape case (Rajasthan): The Commission suo moto took up the case of Ms. Bhanwari Devi and extended its full support in going for appeal and also providing security to the victim and appointment of a special public prosecutor to argue her case. Bhanwari Devi was a
"Sathin" associated with WDP in Rajasthan who was raped in retaliation for her intervention in a child marriage on 22nd September, 1992.
Obscenity cases: The Hon’ble High Court of Delhi put an injunction on the launching of +21 adult channel by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. The NCW had moved the Hon’ble High Court of Delhi against Star TV, Zee TV, etc. for showing obscene pictures on television and other media.
Compulsory registration of marriage: In the matter of Smt. Seema
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v. Ashwani Kumar, transfer petition (Civil) No. 291 of 2005, the Hon’ble SC, issued notice to the Commission, for placing its views on the registration of marriages and the proposed legislation prepared by the Commission. Finally, court has ordered for compulsory registration of every marriage.
Marine drive rape case: On 21st April, 2005, "rape most foul", was perpetrated at a police chowki located adjacent to the Marine Lines Railway station in south Mumbai by an on duty police constable (Sunil Atmaram More). The abhorrent incident was committed by the policeman, who was reportedly in an inebriated condition and raped the victim aged about 17 years in the chowki. The act being outrightly condemnable, the incident impelled the NCW, to take immediate cognizance of the incident and finally, resulted in conviction.
Imrana rape case: The Inquiry Committee was constituted to inquire into the alleged rape of one lady, resident of Charthawal, in District Muzzaffarnagar by her father-in-law. The incident was reported by the
‘Asian Age’ and other newspapers, on which the National Commission for Women took immediate cognizance and issued notices to the district police, directing them to register a case of rape. Finally, the father-in-law was awarded 10 years’ imprisonment by Sessions Court.
Divorced Muslim Women’s Entitlement to maintenance beyond the iddat period: In the matter of Fakhruddin Mubbarak Shaikh v . Jaitunbi Mubbarak Shaikh, the NCW has intervened in the Supreme Court of India to support the stand of Jaitunbi.
Petition filed in Supreme Court against the Delhi High Court Judgment in the Shikha Sharma’s case: The petition seeks to highlight
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the disparities in various legislations, particularly the Child Marriage (Restraint ) Act, 1929, the Hindu Marriage Act,1955, and the exception to section 375 of the Indian Penal Code,1860 as well as the Shariat law, the Indian Divorce Act, 1869 and the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act,2000.
(7) Some major Contributions by National Commission for Women
Sexual Harrasment of Women at workplace: The Supreme Court in Vishakha case as well as in Apparel Export Promotion Council v. A.K.
Chopra,1999 case had laid down specific guidelines in the absence of any then prevailing civil and penal laws in India that could provide for specific protection of women from sexual harassment in work places .Therefore,the guidelines so laid down were intended to provide for the vacuum that prevailed till the time specific legislation is enacted .The Supreme Court had laid down these guidelines in 1997 and no legislation was passed even after a decade of issuance of these guidelines by the Supreme Court .
Taking note of this vacuum the Women’s commission had commissioned a project on “Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace “ in various cities and studies thereby revealed that 60% of the working women are not aware of the guidelines given by the Court in Vishakha case. Not only employees, the study also revealed that employers are also not aware of Supreme Court guidelines. Not only these surveys and studies help in potraying the true picture but also help in framing the legislations to correspond to such reality. The Commission apart from conducting these studies has also framed a bill to be proposed to be enacted to fill the vacuum.
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In this Bill, the Commission recognized the fact that the right to protection from sexual harassment and right to work with dignity are recognized as universal human rights by international conventions and instruments such as Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), which has been ratified by the Government of India.
The efforts of the Commission finally resulted in the passage of the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal ) Act, 2013.
Passing of the Offences by Acid Act, 2008
One of the most commendable role played by National Commission of Women is its efforts in the passing of the Offences by Acid Act, 2008.
This Act is no less than a benchmark in the mission of women empowerment. To provide the various forms of violence that women are subject to acid attack can be termed as an act of gender- based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, psychological harm or suffering to women. The enactment of this Act testifies a step taken ahead in achieving sensitivity towards gender based crime. This Act proves that agencies of state have adopted a sensitive approach towards such grievous crime by identifying them and incorporating them in statutes to ensure justice is delivered to the hapless victims.
Revised Scheme for Relief and Rehabilitation of Victims of Rape (As revised on 15 April, 2010)
The Hon’ble Supreme Court in Delhi Domestic Working Women’s Forum v. Union of India (1995) 1 SCC had directed the National
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Commission for Women to evolve a “scheme so as to wipe out the tears of unfortunate victims of rape.” To give effect to the aforesaid direction of the Hon’ble Court, the National Commission for Women had sent a draft scheme to the Central Government in 1995. The Committee of Secretaries had on this given the following guidelines in this regard, naming it as the
“Scheme for Relief and Rehabilitation of Victims of Rape, 2005”.
(8) Critical Appraisal of the Working of National Commission for Women
Ever since the National Commission for Women (NCW) came into existence in 1992, its composition and functioning have been contentious and controversial. It has been accused of being a “talking shop”, of its chairperson always being a woman who is close to the political party in power and of at least one member being there by virtue of being a bureaucrat. Women’s groups and civil society organisations often have very few expectations that the NCW would take a stand that is unambiguously in favour of the victims of gender violence and discrimination, especially when it would go against the views and interests of the ruling dispensation. The various state women commissions are no different, with all of them showing a similar composition and manner of working.
Though the Commission can play a pivot and revolutionary role in ameliorating the conditions of women in India provided certain impediments are removed .And these imped iments were also identified by the Committee on Elimination of Discrimination against Women at its twenty second session in its concluding observations.The Committee was concerned that the National Commission of Women has no power to
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enforce its proposals for law reform or to prevent discrimination in private sector. It noted that the National Commissions and State Commissions are not supported by adequate financial and other resources .It further noted that the National Commission of Women is not as well resourced or as empowered as the human rights commissions of India, and it has no formal link with these state women ’s commissions.
Thus, it is evident, that lack of authority to enforce its recommendations and law reform create a major impediment in the way of the Commission in attaining its desired goals. Because the non –enforceability frustrates the entire object of the undertaking various studies and surveys to ensure legislative measures suggested by it percolate to ground level and eliminate all forms of violence and discrimination.
The “toothless ” nature of the NCW and the State Commissions has for long being cited as the reason for their overall ineffectiveness. Former Chairpersons and members of the Commission have time and again enumerated the problems faced in dealing with complaints filed before them .One is the limited funds allocated to the body. Not only can the NCW not help a complainant financially (even one in dire need), its budget is too small to be able to support campaigns of any kind, including publicity .Two, the police are also reluctant to take the NCW’s cases seriously and almost always come back saying they find no merit in the complaint. One chairperson had suggested that police officers who give such a report should be made to do so under oath. Three, invariably, the person /persons against whom a complaint has been registered simply refuse to turn up at hearings or provide documents and papers needed to look into the complaint. It has been pointed out that the National
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Commission for Protection of Child Rights has the power to summon individuals to appear before it but not the NCW. Media reports are aplenty about demands articulated by Women’s commissions but there is very little to show that they have been accepted or acted upon by the central and state governments, be it in policy matters or on individual cases which have come up before the commission.
As things stand now there seems to be little political will to make the NCW a truly autonomous body or invest it with enough powers to deal with issues affecting women, big or small.
(9) State Commissions for Women
On the pattern of National Commission for Women, the State Governments and Union territories have also established autonomous commissions to look into matters relating to grievances of women having jurisdiction within its respective state and union territories.
The National Capital Territory of Delhi has also its Commission for women titled Delhi Commission for Women(DCW) which is presently headed by Smt. Swati Maliwal.
The DCW is constituted with the aim to investigate and examine all matters relating to the safeguards provided for women under the Constitution and other laws. The Commission functions in the manner of a civil court and strives to ensure aims envisaged in the Act through its various programme like Sahyogini, Mahila Panchayats, Rape Crisis Cell, and Pre Marital Counselling Cell .The jurisdiction of the Commission is within National Capital Territory of Delhi.
(10) Family Courts
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Women experience worst kind of sufferings that impoverish her physically and emotionally as and when at the hands of her husband the cracks in matrimonial home become visible to her. This shatters her dream of being an ideal wife and gets exposed to public ridicule .This brings femininity to shame and disgust, which needs immediate attention to quarantine such tendencies. It was anticipated that the institution of Family Courts would prove timely measure in this regard .These courts are entrusted for the disposal of matrimonial cases .Women feel free because the environment in the court would be informal that would encourage women to freely vent their grievances .As such, the parties may receive counselling rather than being formally tried which amounts to pitching one party against the other.
The Law Commission in its 59th Report had also stressed that in dealing with disputes concerning the family the court ought to adopt an approach radically different from that adopted in ordinary civil proceedings and that it should make reasonable efforts at settlement before the commencement of the trial .In 1976, the Code of Civil Procedure was also amended to provide for a special procedure to be adopted in suits and proceedings relating to matters concerning the family, but not much change in the attitude of the courts was noticed. Therefore the need was felt to establish Family Courts for speedy settlement of family disputes.
Accordingly, the Family Courts Act, 1984 was enacted by our parliament.
The Act provides for the establishment of Family Courts by the State Governments in every city or town with a population exceeding one million. The Family Courts have exclusive jurisdiction in matters relating to matrimonial reliefs, including nullity of marriage, judicial separation, divorce, restitution of conjugal rights or declaration as to validity of marriage or as to matrimonial status of any person, the property of the
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spouses, declaration as to legitimacy of any person, guardianship of a person or custody of a minor and in maintenance proceedings under Chapter IX of the Code of Criminal Procedure.
The Act makes it obligatory on the part of the Family Court to endeavor in the first instance to effect a reconciliation or a settlement between the parties to a family dispute and also provides for association of social welfare agencies, counsellors etc. during conciliation stage and also to secure the service of medical and welfare experts .Under the Act, the parties to a dispute are not entitled as of right to be represented by legal representative but the court may, in the interest of justice, seek assistance of a legal expert as amicus curiae. The Act provides only one right of appeal which lies to the High Court.
But the drawback of the Family Courts is that criminal cases including assaults, violence at home perpetuated by the husband, dowry demands and consequent dowry deaths remain outside its purview.
Unless these infirmities in the Act are made up it is difficult to perceive that there would occur a change in the life pattern of women who have historically been a casualty.
(11) Mahila Courts
Mahila Courts are specialized courts set up to dispense justice to women.
They speedily deal with and dispose off cases pertaining to women fighting legal battles following matrimonial discord. Mahila or women courts have been established as forums in which women, with or without their small children, seek quick relief in disputes for shelter and for financial assistance. Mahila Courts are headed by experienced women
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judges and magistrates and the staff employed in such courts is also predominantly female. They are headed by a judge of the rank of Additional Chief Metropolitan cum Assistant Sessions Judge, who too is a woman. These courts deal exclusively with cases pertaining to offences against women such as cases relating to grant of maintenance under section 125 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, cases under section 354 and 509 of the Indian Penal Code dealing with assault or criminal force and words or gestures intended to insult the modesty of a woman. At the Sessions level, Mahila Courts deal with the cases of kidnapping (s.363 I.P.C), procuring minor girls for the purpose of prostitution, rape (s.376 I.P.C) and cruelty by husband or in-laws (s.498 A I.P.C).The Metropolitan Magistrates in these courts are assigned cases relating to molestation, rape, kidnapping and also domestic violence .These courts serve the purpose, with great sensitivity, of rendering justice in criminal matters pertaining to women victims.
The procedure followed in the courts is informal and comforting for women. They can shed their inhibitions and depose freely in the presence of women judges who are more sensitized towards females and their inherent nature. These courts also provide a platform to women wherein they can negotiate their claims. Mahila Courts ordinarily hold criminal trials but at times conciliation proceedings are also organized in order to preserve the family fabric.
(12) Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalat (PMLA): An Alternative Justice Delivery System
The National Commission for Women has evolved an innovative concept of PMLA for redressal and speedy disposal of cases under Legal Services Authority Act, 1987, which has its roots in the traditional Nyaya
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Panchayats. The essential features of PMLA are amicable mutual settlement and flexibility in functioning .The NGOs in association with District Legal Aid and Advisory Boards, activists, advocates and others, organize Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalats with the Commission ’s financial assistance.
Under the Legal Services Authority Act, 1987, the decisions of the Lok Adalats have legal validity.
(13) Conclusion
Over the years to maintain the control of men over women, gender-based violence has been sanctioned and perceived as a normal conduct in most cultures in India. The combination of its high incidence and low visibility in the public eye makes it one of the most pressing social problem of this era. Through grassroot mobilization, state and national women’s commission have emerged as dynamic institutions working, taking initiative, intervening against the deeply ingrained prejudices to address violence against women since its inception .Representing a counter –force against the established social tenets and norms of violence against women, these state and the national commission for women represent along with the NGOs the key agents of citizen initiative and social reform.
The Commission of Women (including both State and National) has been instrumental in the practical implementation of CEDAW, the International Convention on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women in 1993.This convention is one of the most significant legal instrument for the protection of rights of women and NCW and various state commissions have played an indispensable role in implementing it to grass –root levels.
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Thus we find a web of seamless initiatives has been woven across the country to reach out to the poorest of poor and against myriad form of injustices and violence against women through the impeded efforts of National and State Commissions and other institutional frameworks in the form of Family Courts, Mahila Courts and Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalats . References
(1) Official website of the National Commission for Women (2) Official website of the Delhi Commission for women
(3) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(4) The United Nations Commission on the Status of Women – twenty fifth Report
(5) Department of Social Welfare, “ Towards Equality: Report of the Committee on Status of Women in India ”, (Government of India, 1974)
(6) The National Commission for Women Act, 1990 (7) The Family Courts Act, 1984
