Detoxifying agriculture and health
from highly hazardous pesticides
A call for action
Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides
A call for action
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations World Health Organization
Required citation:
FAO and WHO. 2019. Detoxifying agriculture and health from highly hazardous pesticides - A call for action. Rome.
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While all pesticides can be dangerous when used inappropriately, highly hazardous pesticides are of particular concern due to the severe adverse effects they can cause to human health and the environment. Even though they constitute only a minor share of all authorized pesticides, they can cause the most harm. With ad- equate investment in scaling-up existing and new ecological al- ternatives for pest control, pesticides that pose unacceptable risk to humans and the environment can be phased out from agricul- ture and other use sectors.
©FAO/Giulio Napolitano
Pesticides are inherently hazardous, and among them, a small number of highly hazardous pesticides cause dispro- portionate harm to the environment and human health. There is particular concern in developing countries, where controls on the conditions of use are constrained.
Highly hazardous pesticides are defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO) International Code of Con- duct on Pesticide Management (2014) as pesticides that are acknowl- edged to present particularly high levels of acute or chronic hazards to health or environment according to internationally accepted classification
systems such as WHO or GHS [the Globally Harmonised System of Clas- sification and Labelling of Chemicals]
or their listing in relevant binding in- ternational agreements or conven- tions. In addition, pesticides that appear to cause severe or irreversible harm to health or the environment under conditions of use in a country may be considered to be and treated as highly hazardous.
What are highly hazardous
pesticides?
Highly hazardous pesticides:
•
are considered to represent a fraction of all registered pesti- cides worldwide; in some cases as small as 6 percent (Southern African countries) while in other cases as high as 30 percent of the registered products;•
are primarily, but not only, older generation, off-patent chemicals no longer authorized in many high- income countries because of the unacceptable risks they pose to human health and the environment;•
are still in use in many low – and middle – income countries be- cause of inadequate regulation and monitoring;•
are primarily used in agriculture and in public health (DDT and clothianidin) for malaria vector control, but also used in domestic gardens;1•
are one of the most common means of suicide worldwide, ac- counting for 19.7 percent of all sui- cides;•
have been detected in air, water, soil, animals and humans;•
can be found in local food sys- tems and global food com- modities such as bananas, coffee and rice, but the most contaminated crops are fruit and vegetables;•
can cause loss of biodiversity, kill fish and birds and poison wildlife;•
should be progressively phased out by more sustainable alterna- tives.Key facts
1Mew, E. J., et al. 2017
Neonicotinoids are quite persistent in soil and water and substantial residues are commonly found in the environment, including in wildflow- ers. A rapidly growing body of evi- dence strongly suggests that the existing levels of environmental con- tamination are causing large-scale adverse effects on bees and other beneficial insects2 and on insectivo- rous bird populations.
Are neonicotinoids potential highly hazardous pesticides?
Neonicotinoids are the most widely used insecticides in the world. They are used as seed treatments or as foliar sprays on a broad range of crops. Due to their systemic action, they are absorbed through the roots of plants and translocated to their leaves, flowers and pollen.
2 Pisa, L.W., et al. 2015
Exposed bees may die or have an impaired ability to forage for nectar, to learn and remember where flowers are located and to find their way home to the nest or hive.
Use of neonicotinoids in malaria vector control
One of the neonicotinoids, clothianidin, is recommended and has been prequalified by WHO for use in indoor residual spraying for malaria vector control, although un- like its possible chronic effects against bees, it may not necessarily be toxic to humans or may not spill over to the environment when used in a disease control pro- gramme as it is applied to house walls inside the home with the aim of killing indoor resting mosquitoes.
The need to severely restrict their use and prevent future registration is gaining a large consensus. The European Union has already issued a complete and permanent ban on all outdoor uses of the three most commonly used neonicotinoid pes- ticides: clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam.3
Indoor residual spraying (IRS) has long been used as an intervention to control malaria worldwide and is one of the two core interventions recom- mended by WHO for malaria control, the other being community-wide use of long-lasting insecticidal nets. A re- cent report has quantified the effect of IRS. This study has reported that IRS contributed to a 13-fold (11–16 percent) reduction in Plasmodium falciparum malaria throughout Africa between 2000 and 2015, and the ef- fect was larger where its coverage was high.4
3 European Commission, 2018.
4 S. Bhatt, et al. 2015.
What are their impacts on sustainable development?
5 Ntzani EE, et al. 2013.
Highly hazardous pesticides cause adverse social, environmental and economic effects that undermine the achievement of sustainable de- velopment.
•
HealthEvery year more people die from (unintentional and intentional) pes- ticide poisoning than snake-bite.
According to WHO data, an esti- mated 107 705 people died world- wide in 2015 from all forms of unintentional poisoning (WHO Global Health Statistics, 2015). The proportion of deaths due to pesti- cide poisoning is unknown due to limited data, but may be substan- tial. The vast majority of pesticide poisoning cases are thought to occur in low-and middle-income countries. Chronic exposure to pes- ticides has been associated with many health conditions, such as cancers, amyotrophic lateral scle- rosis (ALS), asthma, type II diabetes and others. For example, a litera- ture review for the European Food
Safety Authority (EFSA) identified significant associations between pesticide exposure and 1) child- hood leukaemia, and 2) Parkinson’s disease.5
•
GenderWomen and children are particu- larly susceptible to adverse ef- fects. Physical abnormalities and accidental poisoning of children exposed to pesticides are re- ported in developing countries.
•
Child labourOver 60 million children are en- gaged in hazardous work in agri- culture. Pesticide exposure is one of the main hazards.
6 Rejected because they exceed the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) set by international standards.
•
BiodiversityHighly hazardous pesticides con- tribute to the decline of wildlife populations of fish, birds, insects, (including pollinators), amphibians and aquatic animal fauna in several areas of the globe.
•
Water and soilPesticide contamination is found in surface and groundwater re- sources, and in soils worldwide.
•
Food safety and international tradePesticide residues in food are an important trigger of export rejec- tions.6 The most ‘non-compliant’
crops for pesticide residues world- wide are fruit and vegetables.
The Sustainable Development Goals are directly affected by the use of highly hazardous pesticides
Why are highly hazardous
pesticides still in use in low-and middle-income countries?
Significant quantities of highly haz- ardous pesticides already banned in developed countries are still used in low-and middle-income coun- tries, where the risk of human and
environmental exposure is, almost without exception, much higher than in those countries where they have been banned or severely re- stricted.
Source: Data provided by Kynetec 0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
635 Monocrotophos 820 Methamidophos 670 Chlorpyrifos
Pesticides used by six top exporter countries on vegetables and fruit between 2012 and 2016 (metric tonnes active ingredient)
Even though the awareness of and willingness to mitigate the risks posed by highly hazardous pesti- cides have grown tremendously in many countries, advancing with their restriction or phasing out requires addressing policy and structural challenges, such as:
•
Entrenched commercial inter- ests in maintaining the production, export and use of highly haz- ardous pesticides.•
Unsustainable agricultural poli- cies that favour the expansion of input-intensive, commercial agri- culture and the re-introduction of pesticide subsidies.•
Failure to cost for externalities into the pricing of pesticides which gives them a deceptive but signif- icant price advantage over alterna- tive (more sustainable) methods.•
Limited capacity for pesticide risk assessment and monitor- ing: the average number of staff working in the national pesticide registration authorities in low and middle-income countries is 3 as opposed to 700 in the United States of America or 150 in the United Kingdom.7•
Insufficient independent scien- tific studies on health and envi- ronmental effects and science–policy interface to support deci- sion-making and regulatory action.
•
Inadequate investment towards innovative alternative solutions:ranging from enabling regulations for biopesticides to the need to consolidate a market demand for innovative solutions.
•
Farmers’ resistance to innova- tion because changes to farming practices are perceived as risky.Emergency responses to new pest outbreaks (e.g. Fall Armyworm) can drive the use of highly hazardous pesticides upwards.
7 FAO survey 2013, data from 109 countries.
Agroecology Agricultural systems that are based on diversification and that are managed to enhance ecosys- tem services such as natural pest control and pollination are less vulner- able to pest outbreaks and more re- silient to other biotic stresses and climate variations. Specific manage- ment practices preserve and augment the presence of natural enemies to keep pest populations under balance.
Biological products Farmers can complement agroecological man- agement practices with a range of biological products for pest control such as plant extracts, pheromone traps and microbial pathogens, de- pending on the actual pest situation.
Green chemistry Low-risk synthetic pesticides can be used as a last re- sort.
Some leading countries in Africa (e.g.
Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya and South Africa) have adopted specific biopes- ticide legislation and engaged with
commercial biopesticide companies to make biological control viable.
Biopesticides in these countries are used in agriculture and forestry.
Many other countries still lack the legislative framework, the commer- cial arrangements or the incentives to make biocontrol a large-scale reality.
What are the alternatives?
Integrated vector management
This is a rational decision-making process to optimize the use of re- sources for vector control. The al- ternative intervention tools include use of long-lasting insecticidal nets, use of pyrethroids in indoor residual spraying, use of bacterial insecticides and larvivorous fish for mosquito larval control, and larval source management includ- ing environmental methods.
Global biopesticide market to increase at a rate of
16–17%
Sustainable farming systems
Good agricultural practices
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
means the careful consideration of all available pest control tech- niques and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that dis- courage the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and reduce or minimize risks to human health and the environment. IPM empha- sizes the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest control mechanisms.
Source: FAO/WHO International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management: Guidelines on Highly Hazardous Pesticides. 2016.
A g r o e c
Virus
Bacteria Pest
Monitoring
Crop botany
Low-risk chemical pesticides
Botanical
Fungi Semiochems
Natural enemies
Mircro organism
o l o g y
What is being done?
The joint FAO/WHO Guidelines on Highly Hazardous Pesticides pub- lished in 2016 intend to help coun- tries address the risks of highly hazardous pesticides following three key steps:
1 Identification
Countries analyse their pesticide registries against eight criteria (see back page) to identify which prod- ucts are highly hazardous.
2 Needs and risks assessment Countries assess the actual needs and benefits for these products and their risks to human health and the environment, taking into con- sideration available alternatives.
3 Mitigation options
Countries identify risk mitigation measures. The most appropriate mitigation measures may be differ- ent for each highly hazardous pes- ticide and for each condition of use.
A key enabling factor in mitigation is the availability of alternatives.
©FAO/Luis Tato / FAO 00168425
The joint FAO/WHO Guidelines for the registration of microbial, botanical and semiochemical pest control agents for plant protec- tion and public health uses (2017) provide additional guidance to facil- itate the registration of alternative products.
Countries have several mitigation options available to them in relation to highly hazardous pesticides rang- ing from ending use, restricting use or changing formulations or conditions of use.
Pesticides with an extremely high toxicity require a level of personal protection that cannot always be en- sured. In line with Article 7.5 of the FAO/WHO International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Manage- ment, a complete phase out is the preferred mitigation measure for these products.
Pesticide regulatory authorities can be guided in this process by the FAO Pesticide Registration Toolkit which provides, among others:
•
methods for hazard and risk as- sessment•
access to information on individual pesticides•
databases of registered pesticides around the world•
access to scientific reviews of pesticidesArticle 7.5. Prohibition of the im- portation, distribution, sale and purchase of highly hazardous pesticides may be considered if, based on risk assessment, risk mitigation measures or good mar- keting practices are insufficient to ensure that the product can be handled without unacceptable risk to humans and the environment.
Source: FAO/WHO. 2014. The International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management.
Global governance and policy dialogue
•
In 2015, the International Conference on Chemicals Management (ICCM4) adopted a resolution that called for concerted action to address highly hazardous pesticides, with emphasis on promoting agroecologically based alternatives.•
WHO has developed a Global Vec- tor Control Response 2017–20308 to guide global action.150 highly hazardous products out of more than 2 500 registered pesticides in Botswana,
Mozambique, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe have been identified.
Myanmar has imposed restrictions on 19 highly hazardous pesticides.
8 https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/
259205/9789241512978-eng.pdf?sequence=1
Countries that have received FAO training to identify and address highly hazardous pesticides in the last 5 years.
·
Over 2 300 farmers interviewed in field surveys carried out as part of FAO-led projects. The conditions of pesticide use in all countries were likely to result in undue exposure, substantiating the need for immediate mitigation measures.
National multi-stakeholder platforms in place for the agriculture, public health and the environment sectors to cooperate, exchange information, design risk mitigation plans and facilitate solutions.
Regional collaboration and capacity building
•
Capacity building programmes for pesticide regulators in 61 countries.•
Regional committees and networks of pesticide regulatory authorities established to strengthen collabora- tion and sharing of information.•
Regional guidelines for the harmo- nization of pesticide risk assess- ments developed to tighten risk assessments towards international standards.•
Dialogue with green commodity initiatives (banana, cotton, cocoa and coffee) ongoing to set a ‘no use’policy of highly hazardous pesticides as a production standard.
What more can be done?
The way forward
Despite the progress made, many highly hazardous pesticides are still in use under circumstances that pose unacceptable human health and environmental risks. Stepping up efforts to mainstream the sound management of pesticides into sus- tainable policies and initiatives is therefore an urgently required action to enable the achievement of Agenda 2030.9
Immediate actions
•
Identify, de-authorize and pre- vent future registration of highly hazardous pesticides – for policy- makers.•
Cancel the distribution and sales of highly hazardous pesticides in countries where risk mitigation measures are insufficient to ensure that the product can be handled without unacceptable risk to hu- mans and the environment (Article 7.5 of the International Code of Conduct) – for pesticide industry.•
Incentivize agroecological prac- tices and invest in the development of sustainable alternative solutions to highly hazardous pesticides – for agricultural producers, develop- ment partners and donor agencies.•
Build a vibrant biopesticides market – for private sector.•
Invest in innovation and green chemistry – for academia and donor agencies.•
Mainstream sound pesticide management into policy and in- vestment priorities – for develop- ment partners and donor agencies.9 UN Environment, 2019.
Continued actions
•
Educate policy-makers and the general public on the adverse ef- fects of highly hazardous pesti- cides – for civil society.•
Capacity building of pesticide regulators to strengthen risk as- sessments – for governments, pol- icy-makers and donor agencies.•
Combat illegal trafficking through regional collaboration and stronger inspection and monitoring systems – for policy-makers.•
Establish or implement pesticide residue monitoring schemes – for policy-makers.•
Monitor negative health and en- vironmental effects of highly haz- ardous pesticides to inform decision-making – for govern- ments, civil society.•
Expand green agricultural com- modity market – for private sector.•
Assist countries party to inter- national conventions in achiev- ing national objectives and commitments – for signatories of international conventions.Criteria
FAO/WHO criteria to identify highly hazardous pesticides:
1Pesticide formulations that meet the criteria of Classes Ia or Ib of the WHO Recommended Classi- fication of Pesticides by Hazard;
or
2Pesticide active ingredients and their formulations that meet the criteria of carcinogenicity Cate- gories 1A and 1B of the Globally Harmonized System of Classifica- tion and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS); or
3Pesticide active ingredients and their formulations that meet the criteria of mutagenicity Cate- gories 1A and 1B of the GHS; or
4Pesticide active ingredients and their formulations that meet the criteria of reproductive toxicity Categories 1A and 1B of the GHS; or
5Pesticide active ingredients listed by the Stockholm Convention in its Annexes A and B, and those meeting all the criteria in para- graph 1 of Annex D of the Con- vention; or
6Pesticide active ingredients and formulations listed by the Rotter- dam Convention in its Annex III;
or
7Pesticides listed under the Mon- treal Protocol; or
8Pesticide active ingredients and formulations that have shown a high incidence of severe or irre- versible adverse effects on human health or the environment.
Resources
The FAO/WHO International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management (2014) and the associated guidelines for implementation:
www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/thematic-sitemap/theme/pests/code/en/
The FAO/WHO International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management:
Guidelines on Highly Hazardous Pesticides (2016):
www.fao.org/3/i5566e/I5566E.pdf
The SAICM Strategy to address highly hazardous pesticides:
www.saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/EPI/HHP%20strategy%20English.pdf
Addressing highly hazardous pesticides in Mozambique, FAO (2016):
www.fao.org/3/a-i5360e.pdf
The FAO Pesticide Registration Toolkit:
www.fao.org/pesticide-registration-toolkit/en
The FAO Agroecology Knowledge hub:
www.fao.org/agroecology/home/en
WHO resources on sound management of pesticides are available at:
www.who.int/neglected_diseases/vector_ecology/pesticide-management/en/
References
European Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/783, 2018/784, 2018/785, 2018. This regulation amends Implementing Regulation (EU) No 540/2011 as regards the conditions of approval of the active substances imidacloprid, clothianidin and thiamethoxam.
Global Chemicals Outlook II; From Legacies to Innovative Solutions:
Implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development – Synthesis Report, UN Environment, 2019.
Mew, E. J., Padmanathan, P., Konradsen, F., Eddleston, M., Chang, S.-S., Phillips, M. R., & Gunnell, D. 2017. The global burden of fatal self-poisoning with pesticides 2006-15: Systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders.
Elsevier B.V. Oxford, England.
Ntzani EE, Ntritsos GMC, Evangelou E, Tzoulaki I. 2013. Literature review on epidemiological studies linking exposure to pesticides and health effects.
EFSA Supporting Publications 10(10), 159 pp.
Pisa, L.W., Amaral-Rogers, V., Belzunces, L.P., et al. 2015. Effects of neonicotinoids and fipronil on non-target invertebrates. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22: 68 [online].
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3471-x; also European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). 2018. Neonicotinoids: risks to bees confirmed.
News [online]. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/180228
S. Bhatt, D.J. Weiss, E. Cameron, D. Bisanzio, Mappin,U. Dalrymple, K. Battle, C.L. Moyes, A. Henry, P.A. Eckhoff, E.A. Wenger, O. Briët, M.A. Penny, T.A.
Smith, A. Bennett, J. Yukich, T.P. Eisele, J.T. Griffin, C.A. Fergus, M. Lynch, F.
Lindgren, J.M. Cohen, C.L.J. Murray, D.L. Smith, S.I. Hay, R.E. Cibulskis, and P.W. Gething. The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between 2000 and 2015. Nature. 2015 Oct 8; 526(7572): 207–211.
Key partners
in reducing pesticide risks
Regional economic
communities and organizations committed to sustainable agriculture
Academia and research partners working on strengthening pesticide risk assessment capacity
Civil society engaged in raising awareness and reducing the impacts of pesticides
Private sector committed to providing innovative solutions
Resource partners
Contacts
Pest and pesticide management:
pesticide-management@fao.org
www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/core-themes/theme/pests/en Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations World Health Organization
