I. (A) Personal Details
Role Name Affiliation
Principal Investigator Prof. Sumita Parmar Allahabad University, Allahabad Paper Coordinator Prof. Reicha Tanwar Kurukshetra Univesity, Kurukshetra Content Writer/Author (CW) Prof. Yasmeen Ashai Jammu University, Jammu
Content Reviewer (CR) Language Editor (LE) (B) Description of Module
Items Description of Module
Subject Name Women’s Studies
Paper Name The Discipline of Women’s Studies Module Name/ Title Policies and Current Debates Module ID
Pre-requisites The learner is expected to have some knowledge of child marriage and dowry
Objectives To study and know about the issues of the girl child with reference to child marriage its causes and consequences
· Motherhood; her role in child’s development.
· Dowry and its effects
· Property rights of women emerging concept of marriage and career
· Divorce and its consequences
· Widowhood and its Aspects and concern of older women.
Keywords Issues, Girl Child, Society, Child Marriage, Motherhood, Dowry, Property Rights, Marriage, Career, Divorcé Widowhood, Old Age.
II.
1. Introduction
Girl child problem around the world has many dimensions but the root of all kind of discriminations and bias against the girl child lays in the customs, traditions and the typical mindset of the society which looks, at the girl child and women as inferior beings. Women and girls have been treated in the most inhuman ways if we look back at the last two thousand years of human civilization.
The legacy is continuing even today in most parts of the world in one way or the other. Female Foeticide, female infanticide, sexual abuse and marginalization in terms of nutrition, health care and education, violence against women and bias against women in all spheres of life including social, political, economic and religious structures of society is a common norm even in today’s world. Women and Girl’s do not have decision making power of their own life. It is always somebody else who makes decision for them. Women in many parts of the world do not even have control of their own body and mind. Her reproductive and sexual rights are also compromised. For example Female Genital Mutilation is still practiced in many parts of the world.
Half of the total sexual assaults in the world are committed against girls age 15 or younger. An adolescent girl is married with her consent and becomes pregnant long before her body is ready. The leading cause of death for girls age 15-19 is complication from pregnancy and annually, two million girls between the ages of five and 15 are forced into commercial sex market. This is a glimpse of the real world and the girl child problem. Now, we can imagine the way women and girls are treated around the world. Violence and abuse against women is rampant ands in fact growing in all the major parts of the world. Ninety three million women and girls are “missing” from the world population because of sex selective abortion, female infanticide mal-nutrition, abuse and neglect. Women and girls are 80% of the world’s refugees. Two third of the world’s illiterates are females. And of the millions of children kept out of school 2/3 are girls. Each and every year, million of sex selective abortions are performed, virtually always on female foetuses. Infanticide occurs in 17 countries. In India alone, more than 10,000 girl babies are victims of infanticide each year if it doesn’t kill her by infancy, violence is an ever present danger throughout her girlhood and throughout the rest of her life.
2. Child Marriage
Child marriage is defined as a formal marriage or informal union entered into by an individual before reaching the age of 18. While child marriage is observed for both boys and girls, the overwhelming majority of those affected by the practice are girls, in poor socio-economic, situations.
Child marriage was common throughout the human history. And even today, child marriages are still fairly widespread in some developing areas of the world such as parts of Africa, South Asia, West Asia, Latin-America and Oceania.
As many as 1 in 3 girls in developing areas of world are married before reaching the age of 18 and an estimated 1 in 9 girls in developing countries are married before reaching the age of 15. One of the most common causes of death for girls aged 15 to 19 in developing countries is pregnancy and child births.
2.1 History
Before modern history, child marriage was a common practice found everywhere in the world.
With the advent of 20th century, the practice began to be questioned, discouraged by a majority but all
governments and child marriage practice has been declining across world. To protect vulnerable children from exploitation, various age of consent and marriageable age laws have been made.
In ancient medicinal societies, girls would be betrothed at or before puberty. In Greece, early wedding and early motherhood for girls was encouraged. Even boys were expected to marry before they reached the age of 18. In ancient home, girls married above the age of 12 and boys above 14. With an average life expectancy between 40 to 45 years, around the world, early marriages and teenage motherhood was typical. In the Middle Ages, under English Civil Laws that were derived from Roman Laws, marriage before the age of 16 were common. In Imperial China, Child marriage was the norm.
2.2 Causes of Child Marriage
· Tradition: - Child marriage is a traditional practice that in many places happens simply because it has happened for generations and straying from tradition could mean exclusion from the community. But as Graca Machel, wife of Nelsonm Mandela, says, traditions are made by people – we can change them.
· Fear, Poverty and Social Pressures: - A sense of social insecurity has been a case of child marriage across the world. For example, in Nepal, Parents fear likely social stigma if grown-up adult girls (Past 18 years) stay at home. Other fear of crime such as rape, which not only would be traumatic but may lead to less acceptance of the girl if she becomes victims of this crime. In other cultures, the fear is that an unmarried girl may engage in illicit relationships, or that the impoverished family may be unable to find bachelors for grown up girls in their economic social group. Such fears and social pressures have been proposed as causes that lead to child marriages.
Extreme poverty, in many cases make teenage girls feel like an economic burden to a poor family; early marriages is a way to reduce that economic burden. Poor parents have few alternatives they can afford for the girls in the family they often view child marriage as a means to ensure their daughter’s financial security and to reduce the economic burden of a growing adult on the family.
· Dowry and bride price: - A dowry is price that is distributed by a parent to a daughter at her marriage. It has been an ancient practice, but often an economic challenge for the bride’s family.
The difficulty to save and preserve wealth for dowry was common, particularly in time of economic hardship, or persecution, or unpredictable seizure of property and savings for discriminatory taxes such as Jizya. These difficulties pressed families to betroth their girl, irrespective of her age, as soon as they had the resources to pay the dowry.
A bride price is the amount paid by the groom to the parents of a bride for them to consent to him marrying their daughter. In some countries, the younger the bride, the higher the price she may fetch. This creates an economic incentive where girls are sought and married early by her family to the highest bidder. Child marriages of girls is a way out of desperate economic
conditions or simply a source of income to the parents. Bride price is another cause of child marriage and child trafficking.
· Religion, Civil Law and Child Marriage: -The law in many countries allow child marriages, that is the marriage of girls and boys less than 18 years of age. The minimum legally approved age of marriage is less than 15 in some countries. Such laws are neither limited to developing countries, nor to state religion. In Europe, for example, catholic canon law set 14 as the minimum age for the marriage of girls as does spain with the legal guardians permeation. In North America, girls can be legally married at age 15 in Mexico. Canada and many states in the USA permit child marriages, with court’s permission. UNICEF reports that the top five nations in the world with highest observed child marriage rates are – Niger (75%), Chad (72%), Mali (71%), Bangladesh (64%), Guinea (63%), they are Islamic majority countries.
· Gender Roles: - In many communities, where child marriage is practised, girls are not valued as much as boys – they are seen as burden. So, parents get them married at a very early age – when girl is a child and not a bride.
· Security: - Many parents marry off their daughters young because they feel it is in her best interest, often to ensure her safety in areas where girls are at high risk of physical or sexual assault.
2.3 Consequences of Child Marriage
Child marriage has lasting consequences on girls, which last well beyond adolescence. Women married in their teens or earlier, struggle with the health effects of getting pregnant too young and too often. Early marriages followed by teen pregnancy also significantly increase birth complications and social isolations. In poor countries, early pregnancy limits or eliminates their education options. This affects their economic independence. Girls in child marriages are more likely to suffer from domestic violence, child sexual abuse, and marital rape.
2.3.1 Health consequences
Child marriage threatens the health and life of girls complications from pregnancy and child birth are the main cause of death among adolescent girls below age 19 in developing countries. Pregnant girls aged 15 to 20 are twice as likely to die in child birth as those in their late 20’s and girls under the age of 15 are five times more likely to die. These consequences are due largely to girls physical immaturity where the Pelvis and birth canal are not fully developed. Teen pregnancy, particularly below 15, increases risk of developing obstetric fistula, since their smaller pelvises make them prone to obstructed labour. Complications during pregnancy and birth are worsened in poor countries where child marriage is prevalent.
2.3.2 Illiteracy and Poverty
Child marriage often ends a girls education, particularly in impoverished countries where child marriages are common. Without education, girls and adult women have fewer opportunities to earn an income, financially provide for herself and her children. This makes girls more vulnerable to persistent poverty if their spouses die abandon, or divorce them.
2.3.3 Domestic violence
Married teenage girls with low levels of education suffer greater risk of social isolation, domestic violence, and social violence from their spouses, than more educated who marry as adults. Domestic and sexual violence from their husbands has lifelong, devasting mental health consequences for young girls because they are at a formative stage of Psychological development. Child brides, particularly in situations such as vani, also face social isolation, emotional abuse and discrimination in the homes of their husbands and in-laws.
2.3.4 Women rights
Child marriages impact a range of women’s rights such as access to education, freedom of movement, freedom from violence, reproductive rights and the right to consensual marriage.
The consequence of these violations impact not only the woman, but her children and broader society.
2.4 International Initiatives to Prevent Child Marriage
In September 2011 a resolution adopted by the United Nations General Assembly designated October 11 as the International Day of the Girl Child. October 11, 2012 was the first held as International Day of the Girl Child, the theme of which was ending child marriage.
In 2013 the first United National Human Rights Council resolution against Child, early and forced marriages was adopted; it recognizes child marriage as a human rights violation and pledges to eliminate the practice as part of the UN’s post 2015 global development agenda.
3. Motherhood
Mother is the most endearing entity, and mother child relationship is the most beautiful relation in the world. It is a wonderful feeling when you become mother for the very first time. Life becomes more beautiful than ever and your child becomes your top priority. Your shopping patterns change. All of a sudden your hand bag replaces feeders, napkins, and baby accessories with lip sticks and beauty tools.
As the time passes, you come to know that having children and raising them is not an easy job. Every day you learn something new about your baby and start thinking to cope up with the uprising problems each day.
3.1 Mothering
Mothering is a colossal job, it doesn’t end with just giving birth to the child. From birth to teenage, there is a constant struggle and great responsibility to groom your child in a such a way that she/he should turn out to be a contributing member of society. The real task lies in nurturing and bringing them up. Biological motherhood is simple i.e. natural mechanism of procreation but being a biological mother is not enough, she has to become Psychological mother to her children. Bodies of the children are developed by nature but their minds and hearts are to be cultivated by mothers.
Any women can give birth to a child, but to be a mother needs great understanding. Mother bear the responsibility of bringing up the child, sculpting a child into conscious, enlightened beings. Mother’s love for child is priceless, she loves her child despite of all odds. Mother is the only person who listens to your all foolish things, wepes your tears and embraces you in the time of touble. No soul can replace a mother’s emotions. No individual can bestow the warmth of mother’s laps.
Motherhood is a choice you make everyday, to put someone else’s happiness and well-being ahead of your own, to teach the hard lessons, to do the right thing even when you’re not sure what the right thing is.
3.2 Role of Mother in Child Development
A women’s life undergoes a major change once her child is born. She has to focus a lot of attention on her baby. She has to be aware of the physical, cognitive, and social development of her child as well as it’s adolescent development. A mother plays vital role in the life of child. She has to to create a proper environment for her child that will have space for movement, play and creativity. As a child grows and begins to crawl and walk around in a faltering manner he or she starts to pull down anything that is within his or her reach and as a mother a women has to cope patiently with this phase of a child’s development.
A child’s behavioural development also needs to be closely observed by it’s mother. By watching the child’s expression, actions, listening to their voices, feeling one can easily notice the underlying purpose behind it. A mother sometimes a tries to draw her own childhood experiences and use that information in bringing up their own child. A mother sometimes tends to ignore genetic factors and considers her own child rearing as significant mother takes the credit.
Mother’s should try and gain knowledge about child development and child rearing when the baby is born. This will help them to interact with the child in a positive way that will help in the child’s proper development. As a mother she should have a clear perception about the child’s temperament and
the environment which are very important in the child’s well being. A mother evaluates her own parenting behaviour and uses the insight during her own child rearing time.
The environment in which a child is brought up is of primary importance in a child’s life. A suitable environment supports the proper development of the child. Hence, it is necessary to have a comfortable environment for the child. A mother has to understand her child’s mindset and create an environment which they don’t find boring nor distressing. When children are in their infant stage some may act difficult and react in a negative manner to it’s environment, but a mother has to prepare herself well to deal with such situations.
A mother should have a thorough knowledge of the normal behaviour of a child and its responses such as: -
A) Being aware of the child’s goals and needs when he is in a problematic situation which she can realise only by her closeness with the child.
B) A mother should be sensitive, understanding and use proper child rearing methods for the child’s physical mental and intellectual development.
C) Her emotional intimacy with the child will help her to respond better to the cues of the child who has a problem.
D) She should provide opportunities to the child which are positive in nature and inclined to his pattern of thinking, behaviour and fixation of goals.
4. Dowry
Dowry is an ancient custom, and its existence may well predate records of it. Dowries continue to be expected in some parts of the world, mainly in South Asia, Middle Eastern and North African Countries. In India, dowry (Hindi – Daheja) is the payment in cash or some kind of gifts given to bridegroom’s family along with the bride. Generally it includes cash, Jewellery, electrical appliances, furniture, bedding, crockery, utensils and other household items that help the newlywed setup her home.
The dowry system is thought to put great financial burden on the bride’s family. It has been one of the reasons for families and women India resorting to sex selection in favour of sons. This has distorted sex ratio in India (940 females per thousand males) and has given rise to female foeticide. Disputes related to dowry often result in domestic violence, such as dowry deaths.
4.1. Factors Responsible for Dowry 4.1.1 Social Factors
Social changes across time have contributed to the modern dowry system in India. Some of the social factors influencing dowry include tradition, increased women’s rights, and the “marriage squeeze”, which is the shortage of eligible men for marriage. In the north, marriage usually follows a patrilocal system, where the groom’s is a non-related member of the family. This system encourages dowry perhaps
due to the exclusion of the bride’s family after marriage as a form of premortem inheritance for the bride.
In the South, marriage is more often conducted within the bride’s family, for example with close relatives or cross-cousins and in a closer physical distance to her family. in addition, brides may have the ability to inherit land, which makes her more valuable in the marriage, decreasing the chance of dowry over the bride price system. In addition to marriage customs that may influence dowry, social customs or rituals, and parents expectations of dowry are important factors to consider.
4.1.2 Economic Factors
There are many economic factors that contribute towards the system of dowry. Some of these include inheritance systems and the bride’s economic status. Because female-based inheritance was not legal in inheritance of daughters. The system would give women economic and financial security in their marriage in the form of movable goods. This helped prevent family wealth break-up and provided security to the bride at the same time. This system can also be used as Premortem inheritance, as once a women is presented with movable gifts, she is cutoff from the family estate. However, as the system evolved, dowry has become a greater financial burden on the family, and can leave families destitute based on the demands from the groom, according to research done by Heyer (1992) and Srinivasan (2005), the amount of gold demanded as dowry has increased from around five pavun in 1930 to 100 or more pavun in 2000.
Another factor affecting dowry is the bride’s economic status. When a bride’s family is from a upper class (or caste), the family is expected to pay more for her dowry, and provide a grand display of wealth, this can be detrimental to a brides Wedding prospects, if the family cannot afford the dowry, and can lead to some women wither being forced into unfavourable marriage or not marrying at all.
4.1.3 Domestic Violence
Dowry is considered a major contributor towards observed violence against women in India.
Some of these offences include physical violence, emotional abuses, and even murder of brides and girls.
Records in India reported approximately 6,000 – 7,000 dowry – related deaths every year and about 43,000 – 50,000 cases of mental and physical torture over the years from 1999-2003, indicating that violence and dowry are a serious national concern.
4.1.4 Physical Abuse
Physical violence against women has been a growing concern in India over the last few decades.
Recently married women can be a target for related violence, because she is tied economically and socially to her new husband. There are studies indicating dowry be used as a threat, or hostage type situation, in order to attain greater funds from the brides family. This can be seen in young (and often Pregnant) brides, who are most vulnerable in the situation. This type of situation can occur with the occurrence of violence, so that family is left with no choice but to give more dowry to protect their daughter. In these cases, the husband and his family hold immense power, while the bride is left powerless, this can lead to murder and suicide. The areas of the greatest observed dowry related violence is in the Indian states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
4.1.5 Emotional Abuse
The impact of dowry can leave a woman helpless and desperate, which can accumulate in emotional trauma and abuse. Brides are often considered the object of their husbands, and often have very little power in the marriage, which can lead to depression and suicide. Dowry reinforces these beliefs and is considered to escalate effects of emotional trauma in a marriage.
4.1.6 Murder
The system of dowry has also been linked to murder of younger brides. Physical abuses described above can also result in murder. These murders can arise due to the financial demands from a husband, or dissatisfaction of the bride from the groom’s family. In addition, the concepts of “Bride Burning” refers to the sacrificial murder of a bride who has been not able to satisfy her husband in terms of dowry. In these cases, the woman is considered a sacrifice to her husband due to her inadequacy, and is glorified as an honourable woman. These cases reinforce the structured violence against women, while glorified as being “Purer or more sacred than a dowry death”. In addition to bride murder, the institution of dowry may also reinforce sex-selective abortion and female infanticide.
Dowry violence is usually perpetrated by the husband or the in-laws in a bid to extract a higher dowry from the bride’s family. The dowry price paid at the time of marriage may be significant, but the greed of husbands and in-laws can grow after marriage. This frequently translates into physical, mental or sexual violence against the bride. The violence ranges from slashing genitalia or breasts with razors to burning her alive by pouring kerosene on her. Due to the social and economic burdens of dowry, families may choose boys over girls, so that they avoid consequences of the system. This then may strengthen gendered violence and preferential male treatment in society.
There are laws like protection of women from Domestic violence Act 2005 that help to reduce domestic violence and to protect women’s rights. The protection of women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 differs from the earlier law section 498A of the Indian Penal Code, in that it explicitely defines domestic violence in addition to dowry-related cruelty.
Domestic violence is defined as follows:
1) For the purposes of this Act, any conduct of the respondent shall constitute violence, if he – a) Habitually assaults or makes the life of the aggrieved person miserable by cruelty of conduct
even if such conduct does not amount to physical ill- treatment or b) Forces the aggrieved person to lead an immoral life, or
c) Otherwise injures or harms the aggrieved person.
1) Nothing contained in clause (c) of sub-section (1) shall amount to domestic violence if the pursuit of course of conduct by the respondent was reasonable for his own protection or for the protection of his or another’s property.
5. Property Rights
The right to property, also known as the right to protection of property, is a human right and is understood to establish an entitlement to private property. The right to property is enshrined in Article 17 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights but is not recognised in the international covenant on civil and political rights or the international covenant on economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Article 17 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) enshrines the right to property as follows:
(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property”
5.1. Women Rights
Women Rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls of many societies worldwide. In some places, these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behaviour, whereas in others they may be ignored or suppressed.
Issues commonly associated with notions of women’s right include, though are not limited to, the right; to bodily integrity and autonomy; to vote (suffrage); to hold public office; to work; to fair wages or
equal pay; to own property; to education; to serve in the military or be conscripted; to enter into legal contracts; and tohave marital or parental rights.
5.2. Women Property Rights
There are numerous cultural, racial, political, and legal factors that influence women’s lack of property and inheritance rights and specific patterns of ownership and disenfranchisement that very widely. The lack of control over both productive and non-productive resources that is apparent in both rural and urban settings place women at a reduced level of advantage in areas of security of home, maintaining a basis of survival, and accessing economic opportunities. Development – related problems, faced across the globe have been increasingly linked to women’s lack of property and inheritance rights, especially in regards to land and property ownership, encompassing areas such as low levels of education, hunger, and poor health.
There is a disparity in inheritance by the Hindus so far as females are concerned. Prior to enactment of Hindu Succession Act 1956. Hindus in India were governed by Shastric and Customary Laws which varied from region to region and sometimes it varied on caste basis. The multiplicity of laws in India diversed in their nature; made the property laws even more complex. A Hindu wife was not capable of holding any property separate from her husband. Infact, the wife was considered to be cattle and property of her husband and she could not own property of herself of two types or property, women were to hold streedhan and women’s estate, the holder of the later enjoyed the right during her lifetime and she could not alienate the same. In the constitution of India equality to women was guaranteed for the first time to secure equality of status to improve Hindu women’s right to property, Hindu succession act 1956 came into force.
At the time of enactement of this act, daughters could not become members of the co-parcenery and the act did not afford right of natural inheritance to daughter because of the very concept of right by birth and by reason of sex as only males can be coparcener. To do away with this obstacle in achieving equality right of inheritance for women and to give right to the women by birth as coparcener was demanded in order to bring equality before law as a fundamental right.
Since the women in India started occupying major offices the rights of women and their protection gained more importance. Right from the President to other offices which were considered that such offices can only be occupied by male has remained an imagination and the women have occupied the same and therefore new acts have been enacted by the legislature. And in order to lay down a uniform law and a comprehensive system of inheritance; the Hindu Succession Act came to be amended which applies to any person who is a Hindu by religion in any form or developments including Veershaiya, Lingayat or follower of Brahmo, Prathana or Arya Samaj or a person who is a Buddhist, Jain or Sikh by religion wherein the daughter shall have the same right as that of a son and she shall be considered as a coparcener of the Joint Hindu family. Due to this amendment, the discrimination between the male and female has been removed due to which the imbalance in the ratio of male and female could be curtailed.
From July 2005 the new act has come into force and the daughter is allotted the same share as is allotted to a son. The daughter shall have a right to claim partition in the joint family properties as well as the right to claim, right of partition in the dwelling house of the joint family and shall also have a right to claim the partition during the lifetime of her father. This privilege is only given to hindu women.
When the constitution of India and the laws newly enacted are in favour of giving equal status to the women, the women themselves are interested in claiming lesser than what they are entitled for and they are trying to implement the women’s bill wherein they shall have only 33% right.
The Muslim women has full right to inheritance in light of Quran. The Quran emphasizes on four core values i.e., Insaaf (Justice), ehsaan (fvor), rehem (compassion) and illma (wisdom). If we all follow these core values then the women will get their rights automatically and there would be no chaos. It is a fact that Quran has provided independence and right to women in all aspects. It clearly talks of daughter’s right to 1/3rd property irrespective of movable or immovable and even agricultural land is not an exception.
6. Concept of Marriage and Career
Marriage (also called matrimony or wedlock) is a socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that establishes rights and obligations between them, and their children, and between them and there-in-laws. In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity. Individual may marry for several reasons, including;
legal, social, libidinal, emotional, financial, spiritual and religious. Marriages can be performed in a secular civil ceremony or in a religious setting via a wedding ceremony. Over the twentieth century, a growing number of countries and other jurisdictions have lifted bans on and have established legal recognition for interracial marriage, interfaith marriage and most lately, same – sex marriage. Some cultures allow the dissolution of marriage, through divorce or annulment.
Since the late 20th century, major social changes in western countries have led to changes in the demographics of marriage, with the age of first marriage increasing, fewer people marrying, and many couples choosing to cohabit rather than marry. For example, the number of marriages in Europe decreased by 30% from 1975 to 2005.
6.1 Marriage
Marriage today isn’t at all like what it was two millennia or even two centuries ago. The changes in marriage have been broad and fundamental. Most of these changes have moved power in marriage away from the families and to the couples, as well as making women more equal. Let’s look at just a few of the most significant changes in marriage in the west over the Past centuries: -
· Legalization of divorce.
· Criminalization of marital rape (and recognition that the concept even exists).
· Legalization of contraception.
· Legalization of interracial marriage.
· Recognition of women’s right to own property in a marriage.
· Elimination of dowries.
· Elimination of Parents right to choose or reject their children’s mates.
· Elimination of childhood marriage and betrothals.
· Elimination of Polygamy.
· Existence of large numbers of unmarried people.
· Women not taking the last names of their husbands.
· Changing emphasis from money and property to love and personal fulfillment.
· Legalization of Gay and Lesbian Marriage.
It is worth noting just how many of these reforms directly benefited women, since long time, marriage was a real “Partnership” between men and women. Men were in control and women were often little more than property. But, with changing world in all other races, institution of marriage too undergoes change. Same sex marriage, extra-marital affairs, live-in relation, are more common now-a- days.
Same – sex marriage (also known as gay marriage) is marriage between two people of the same biological sex and or gender identity. Legal recognition of same-sex marriage or the possibility to perform a same-sex marriage is referred to as marriage equality are equal marriage, particularly by supporters. The legal issues surrounding same-sex marriage in the United States are determined by the nation’s federal system of government, in which the status of a person (including marriage) in general is determined by the individual states. Same sex marriage also gives them legal protection such as inheritance and hospital visitation rights. Some analysts state that financial, Psychological and physical well-being are enhanced by marriage, and that children of same-sex couples benefit from being raised by two parents within legally recognized Union supported by society’s institutions. Same-sex marriages can be performed in a secular civil ceremony or in a religious setting. Various faith communities around the world support allowing same sex marriage ceremonies; for example: Buddhism in Australia, the United Church of Canada Christ, and Wiccans, as well as various other progressive and modern Christian, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist and Jewish groups and various minor religions and other denominations.
6.2 Live – in Relation (Cohabitation)
Living arrangement in which an unmarried couple lives together in a long-term relationship that resembles a marriage. Couples Cohabit, rather than marry, for a variety of reasons. They may want to test their compatibility before they commit to a legal union. They may want to maintain their single status for financial reasons. In some cases, such as those involving gay or lesbian couples, or individuals already married to another person, the law does not allow them to marry. In other cases, the partners may feel that marriage is unnecessary. Whatever the reasons, between 1970 and 1990, the number of couples living together outside of marriage quadrupted, from 523,000 to nearly 3 million. These couples face some of the same legal issues as married couples as well as some issues that their married friends never consider.
In most places, it is legal for unmarried people to live together, although some zoning laws prohibit more than three unrelated people from inhabiting a house or apartment. A few states still prohibit fornication, or sexual relations between an unmarried man and woman, but such laws are no longer enforced.
To preserve and encourage marriage, the law reserves many rights and privileges to married persons. Cohabitation carries none of those rights and privileges. It has been said that cohabitation has all of the headaches of marriage without any of the benefits. Cohabiting couples have little guidance as to their legal rights in such areas as property ownership, responsibility for debts, custody, access to Healthcare and other benefits and survivorship.
With the above mentioned changes in the institution of marriage, the other factor that has changed the definition of marriage is career oriented women. Getting married is one of the big decisions in a woman’s life. Historically, women have not has access to the same opportunities as men which encouraged them to marry just to make a better life for themselves. Today women have more options among which one of them is the right to be single.
Through out history, a very different picture has been painted when it comes to the single women vs the single man. Single men are seen as “bachelors”, independent, having fun and enjoying life to its fullest before getting ‘Chained down” by a woman. Single woman on the other hand, have been seen as less than whole if they’re not attached, lonely spinsters, and cat ladies. Over the past decades, there have been many changes in the attitude toward marriage among the women and other society members. These attitudes are caused by today’s society and women being more focus on their carrier than getting married.
It has been observed that increased options outside marriage are more influential in a women’s decision not to many, than the increased barriers to marriage.
According to science careers magazine, one reason that women might have less confidence than men in their careers is the pressures that they face in raising a family and many women choose a fulfilling career over a committed relationship today because they now have the freedom to make that choice.
Women, now a days also prefer to stay single, so that she can enjoy the opportunity of building career without draining the tone of energy a permanent relationship entails.
They remain free to put in long hours, work on the weekends or do whatever else they have to do to be successful. This is especially true if you’re working in any kind of time demanding field, such as medicine, law or entrepreneurship.
Whatever the social pressure, it is clear that singles have been growing in number in India. The figures reveals that, since the 1960’s there has been marked increase in never married women. A census conducted in 1980 revealed that a large number of highly educated woman were still unmarried despite being above 40 years of age.
One of the main reasons why women stay single is because women today are more driven to get the next promotion, become financially secure and to enjoy the fruits of their education and hard work.
Marriage is way down in their list of goals to achieve.
“Becoming financially secure: - Because of education and exposure, women are becoming financially literate. They have learned to put their money on high yield investments and manage their finance. Many never married women are proud house owners and live a comfortable lifestyle. There is no longer a need to marry for financial security.
Women have learned to create their own safe havens. They know how to feel good about themselves and manage their lives without the pressure of men. They love the autonomy of not being controlled and told what to do, when and how to do things. Women also stay single because they have no desire for marriage. There are women who find meaning in life only through their faith and religion. And there are some individuals who have experienced traumatic childhood like rape or sexual abuse and have closed themselves off from intimacy and marriage.
7. Divorce
Marriage is a socially supported union involving two or more individuals in what is regarded as a stable, enduring arrangement based at least in part on sexual bond of some kind. Depending on the society, marriage may require a religious or civil sanction (or both), although some couples may come to be considered married simply by living together for a prescribed period (common law marriage).
Sometimes when couples interact, conflicts may arise and one or both the spouses may want to end the relationship. This is true not only of marriage but of other relationships as well. Unlike most relationships, however marriage involves civil, legal, or religious ties that specify if and how the relationship can end.
Divorce or dissolution, as it is increasingly becoming known, is a legislatively created, judicially administered process that legally terminates a marriage no longer considered viable by one or both the spouses, and that permits both to remarry.
7.1 Divorce and Women
Divorce rate worldwide has been increasing steadily. As women become more independent financially, their acceptance levels come down in direct proportion to their financial stability (Dobson, 2006). They become more vocal and are willing to sacrifice their family for the sake of independence.
Although it is not a good sign for the society as a whole, which has to depend on family structure, it is inevitable. However, it would be wrong to even hint that only women are responsible for this alarming trend.
Many a times continuing in an abusive and unsatisfying marriage has had greater effect on the psyche of spouses and children rather than opting to be parted amicably or through court (Goldstein, 2008).
Several reasons have been cited for opting out of marriages these days-increasing violence, cruelty, character assassination, alcoholism, problems of adjustment especially in a joint family, growing individualism of the wrong type, extramarital affairs and the undesirable impact of the outside world in terms of falling values and lack of role models (Thara, 2002).
From a large number of potential life events, divorce has been rated as one of the most stressful, with a large general impact on the life situation of those who experience it (Dohrenwend et al, 1978; Holmes and Rahe, 1967: Gahler. 2006). Empirical studies also repeatedly show that marital dissolution is associated with a number of social problems. For example, divorcees have smaller social networks and arc more likely to lack social support (Gahler, 2006). Also, they more often experience negative life events and physical and psychological ill-health. Furthermore, divorced women are likely to be exposed to economic hardship (Johnson and Wu, 2002; Lorenz et al, 1997).
7.2 Effects of Divorce
The divorce can virtually change every aspect of a persons life including where a person lives, with whom he/she lives, the standard of living, the emotional state, the assets and liabilities, the time spent with children and other family and much more.
As the effects of divorce differ by situation and personal circumstances and may be different for men and women, one sociologist who studied the economic effects of divorce in late 1990's reported that a women experience 73% drop in their standard of living during the first year following divorce. Men, on the other hand, often fare better in terms of the financial effects of divorce.
The legal effects of divorce will determine the division of property, money, and debts accrued during a marital union. Non-marital or personal property is usually protected during a divorce process.
7.3 Consequences of Divorce 7.3.1 Emotional Problems
After divorce both the persons have to reckon with the new realities. The husband has to adjust in his emotional life, personal habits, business, and social life. The wife has to make all these adjustments and in addition, she has to seek socio-economic support. If there are children, their care adds a new dimension to both the parties.
7.3.2 Economic Problems
There is great disparity between the economic ramifications of divorce between men and women.
Men remain relatively unaffected while women, especially those with children have difficulty providing food, clothing and shelter for themselves and their children. Often a woman is not able to rely on her family for support because many parents feel they have discharged their obligations to a daughter by arranging her marriage and providing a dowry.
7.3.3 Social Problems
While India feels that one should have the right to divorce, it is still strongly stigmatized.
Women are looked upon more harshly than men are in this regard. There continues to be segments of Indian society that feel divorce is not an option, regardless of how abusive or adulterous the husband may be which adds to the greater disapproval for women. Divorced women often will return to her family, but may not be whole-heartedly welcomed. She .is, especially if she has children, an economic burden on her family and is often given lowly household tasks to perform.
7.4 Causes of Divorce 7.4 .1 Biological Factors
Sexual relationship between the spouses is one of the important aspects of marital adjustment.
The sexual relationship between the spouses gets severely affected if either or both the spouses indulge in illicit sexual relationship, or if either of the spouses is either impotent or imbecile.
7.4.2 Social Factors
Several social factors strain marriage and lead to divorce. Differences in the family background and status of the spouses, family structure, immaturity at marriage and age disparity between the spouses are often reported to have strained marital relationship.
7.4.3 Economic Factors
Several economic factors such as income, asset and employment status of the husband, the amount and form of dowry and working status of the wife, influence the success of marriage.
7.5 Behavior which can be Helpful for Divorcing Couple
· Emotional Support
· Child care
· Good, rational advice
· Respect for autonomy and regression 8. WIDOWHOOD
Women are more likely than men to be widowed for two reasons. First, women live longer than men (a feet highlighted by worldwide data regarding differences in life expectancies of men and women). In addition, women tend to marry older men, although this gap has been narrowing. Because women live longer and marry older men, their odds of being widowed are much greater than men's (Lee, 2002).
Loss of spouse is one of the most negative life events, next only to the loss of a child. Ironically, the disorganization and trauma that follow the death of a spouse seem to be greater in women than in men whenever either looses their spouse. Another problem associated with widowhood is loneliness. Many widows live by themselves. They suffer the fear of being alone and loss of self-esteem as women, in addition to the many practical problems related to living alone. They feel the loss of personal contact and human association; therefore, they tend to withdraw and become unresponsive (Fasoranti et al., 2007).
8.1 Widowhood and its Psychological Aspects
In many developing countries, the exact numbers of widows, their ages and other social and economic aspects of their lives are unknown. Almost worldwide, widows comprise a significant proportion
of all women, ranging from 7% to 16% of all adult women. However, in some countries and regions, their proportion is far higher. In developed countries, widowhood is experienced primarily by elderly women, while in developing countries it also affects younger women, many of them still rearing children. In some regions, girls become widows even before reaching adulthood.
The greatest problem in widowhood is still emotional. Even if it had been a bad marriage, the survivor feels the loss. The role of spouse is lost, social life changes from couple-oriented to association with other single people; and the widowed no longer have the day-in, day-out companionship of the other spouse that had become a intrinsic part of their lives.
People respond differently to loss and overcome grief in their own time. Frequently, the most difficult time for new widows is after the funeral (Scannell, 2003). Young widows often have no peer group.
Compared to older widows, they are generally less prepared emotionally and practically to cope with the loss. Widowhood often causes financial stress because a major income source is lost with the death of a husband.
8.2 The Indian Perspective
India has the largest recorded number of widows in the world-33 million (10% of the female population, compared to only 3% of men), and the number is growing because of HIV/AIDS and civil conflicts. "Fifty-four per cent of women aged 60 and over are widows, as are 12 per cent of women aged 35- 39. Remarriage is the exception rather than the rule; only about 10 per cent of widows marry again."
(Chen, 2000). India is perhaps the only country where widowhood, in addition to being a personal status, exists as a social institution. Widows' deprivation and stigmatization are exacerbated by ritual and religious symbolism. Indian society, similar to all patriarchal societies, confers social status on a woman through a man. Hence, in the absence of a man, she herself becomes a non-entity, ultimately suffering a social death. Sati (widow burning) is the ultimate manifestation of t h i s b el i ef.
Widow remarriage may be forbidden in the higher castes; and remarriage, where permitted, may be restricted to a family member. Further, a widow, upon remarriage, may be required to relinquish custody of her children as well as any property rights she may have. If she keeps her children with her, she may fear they would be ill-treated in a second marriage. Indian widows are often regarded as "evil eyes," the purveyors of i l l fortune and unwanted burdens on poor families.
Thousands of widows are disowned by their relatives and thrown out of their homes in the context of land and inheritance disputes. Their options, given a lack of education and training, are mostly limited to becoming exploited, unregulated, domestic labourers (often as house slaves within the husband's family), or turning to begging or prostitution
The sexual and economic exploitation of widows, abandoned by their families to the temple sites such as Mathura, Varanasi and Tirupati, has been sensationally documented in the media-Thousands of India's widows li ve in abject poverty and degradation in these centers. It is reported that in Vrindavan alone, an estimated 20,000 widows struggle to survive (UN Division for the Advancement of Women.
2000). Younger widows are forced into prostitution, and older ones are left to beg and chant for alms from pilgrims and tourists. Older widows may have lived the greater part of their lives in these temples, having been brought there as child widows many years before. The ordeals of the temple widows and the occasional sati are publicized in the international press. But, the day-to-day suffering of Indian widows, who are emotionally, physically and sexually abused by relatives, or who migrate to cities to live on the streets and beg, remains largely hidden (Bruce, 2005; Damon, 2007; UN Division for the Advancement of Women, 2000)".
Widows, through poor nutrition, inadequate shelter, lack of access to health care and vulnerability to violence, are very likely to suffer not only physical ill health but stress and chronic depression as well. Widows may be victims of rape. This is further compounded by the fact that widows, in common with many women, are very often unaware of their rights, and encounter insuperable barriers to accessing justice systems, such as illiteracy, expenses and threats of violence.
9. Old Age Women
Aging is a series of processes that begin with life and continue throughout the life cycle. It represents the closing period in the lifespan, a time when the individual looks back on life, lives on past accomplishments and begins to finish off his life course. Adjusting to the changes that accompany old age requires that an individual is flexible and develops new coping skills to adapt to the changes that are common to this time in their lives.
Old age is a natural part of the life-cycle. It is a process of regular changes that occur in mature and genetically representative organism living under representative environmental conditions as they advance in chronological age. These changes can be anatomical, physiological, psychological and even social and economic. Biological Aging refers to anatomical and physiological changes that occur with change. Biologists are of the opinion that aging begins when growth and development stops.
Psychological aging consists of a general decline in the mental abilities that accompany old age.
Generally, physical aging precedes mental aging though this is not always the case. The sociological aspect of individual aging is concerned with changes in the circumstances or situations of individual as a member of the family, community and society.
9.1 Specific Concerns of Older Women 9.1.1 Sexual Problems
Both genders experience a decrease in the production of sex hormones during midlife. Unlike male ED there is some ambiguity over the diagnosis of female sexual dysfunction, which includes decreased desire or arousal, anorgasmia and dyspareunia. However, it is clear that urogenital atrophy (identified subjectively as vaginal itching/soreness/dryness/pain during sex) does commonly causes problems especially in post-menopausal women. It has an effect not only on sexual functioning, but also emotional well-being, interpersonal relationships, body image and everyday activities such as b i k e r i d i n g or prolonged sitting.
9.1.2 Menopause
Menopause marks the end of a woman's reproductive years. You have reached menopause when a full year has passed without having a period. This happens for most women after age 45. Some women are hardly" aware of the changes occurring as they near menopause.
9.1.3 Bone Loss
Many women experience a significant loss of minerals from bones (Osteoporosis, osteopenia) predisposing them to fractures of the hip and vertebra. Such injuries result of loss of function, disability and often death. A study conducted in Maharashtra (Bagga, 1994) show that lifestyle and dietary habits could contribute to decreased frequency of bone fracture. It is said that there are three aspects to effective preventive strategy for bone loss. The first is to ensure that optimal peak bone mass is achieved during adolescence and early adulthood. The second is maintaining bone mass that has been acquired. Such maintenance requires adequate calcium intake and exercise as well as healthy lifestyle. The third is counteracting age- related bone loss that occurs after 40-45 years All add up to bone loss and related problems that reduce their mobility and social activity.
9.1.4 Arthritis
Arthritis affects nearly half the elderly population of women and is a leading cause of disability.
The keys to prevention: avoid overuse, do steady, regular exercise rather than in weekend spurts, and stop if you feel pain.
9.1.5 Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)
Coronary heart disease (CHD) was for a long time considered a 'man's disease'. Such myths were not uncommon amongst the medical practitioners also. Now CHD has been identified as number one killer of women (J ai n, 1998). Their perception of relative immunity from heart disease gives women a false sense of security. They do not initiate preventive measures at a young age. This lack of awareness results in more deaths due to heart problems in women than men.
9.1.6 Cancer
Cancer is another killer. Where Indian women are concerned, cancer of cervix is more common.
Most of the genital tumours among women who are 60+ are malignant. They are often not detected because they do not interfere with physical and sexual activity (Gupta and Pal, 1998). Worldwide statistics show the breast to be the commonest site for cancer in women. But in India, cancer of uterine cervix is more common (Bhargava, 1998).
9.1.7 Depression
Moving on a mental health, depression is not uncommon in women. In reality, women are more depressed than men across all stages of life. Diseases of endocrine system, vitamin deficiencies leading to anaemia, metabolic illnesses may also lead to depression. Some of the common stressors are: Loss of spouse, economic dependence, lack of meaningful roles and reduced life satisfaction. Psychological distress is reported higher among older women especially among rural women (Shirolkar & Prakash. 1995) 9.1.8 Dementia
Dementia is basically a disease of longevity. Women are at a higher risk for Alzheimer's compared to men. If they out-survive men. they may also face increased risk of cognitive impairment.
9.1.9 Neglect of Health: Causes and Consequences
Lack of fitness not only causes older persons to lose the ability to care for themselves, but also results in the economic burden of health cost care that is avoidable. In India, there is not much reinforcement for women to engage in daily exercise. The culture demands that women devote their time and energy for family care and domestic chores. They also find excuses for not exercising. They often feel g u i l t y if they devote time for self-care and personal needs. The mindset is difficult to change. Aerobics, and planned exercise regime are associated with young, and that too men. Somehow, women find 'doing exercise' a masculine pursuit. It is not lack of awareness. Though very well aware of the usefulness of physical exercise, older women hesitate to commit themselves to strict regime. The famous Gerontologist, Robert Butler in
one of his speeches had said that walking is the best possible preventive measure for everyone. He called walking the best anti-aging recipe.
9.2 Steps to Improve Health
Improving the health status of older woman poses a challenge; because, efforts to intervene in old age will yield diminished returns. One has to have a life cycle perspective with regard to health.
Simple and painless tests are being developed to detect osteoporosis. Such procedures should be given wide publicity through the media. The painful nature of medical procedures puts off women from seeking preventive screening.
Self-examination of breast for suspicious nodule or retraction of the nipple or unexplained discharges is important
Women need to be educated regarding the nature of hormonal deprivation and advised hormone replacement therapy if needed
Elderly women are major consumers of drug. The heavy dependence on drugs should be reduced.
Women should be encouraged to attend health camps and screening camps. Seeking medical assistance early enough helps improve the quality of life.
Women should be encouraged to engage in community activities. This exposes them to information, promotes social activity and encourages them to be independent.
10. Summary
· Girl child issues have many dimensions but the root of all kind of discriminations and bias against them lies in the customs, traditions and the typical mind set of the society, which is governed by patriarchy.
· The most prominent problems are child marriage, early motherhood, dowry and property rights.
· There are also some problems associated with womanhood, these are divorce, widowhood and old age problems.
· Each issue brings with it a number of crisis situation for the girl child and women like health consequences, domestic violence, harassment, abuse and economic problems.
