Rajiv Gandhi Chair Pub. 5
DATA TOOLS
PARTICIPATORY RURAL A P PR A ISA L JSgH N IQ U E S
SI[\!DHU SADAI\IAI\IDAI\I P. niATARAJAlU
JOSE A N TO N Y V IP IN K U M A R V. P.
RAJIV G A N D H I C H A IR IN C O N T E M P O R A R Y STUDIES S C H O O L O F ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
C O C H IN UNIVERSITY O F S C IE N C E A N D TEC H N O L O G Y . C O C H I N - 2 2
Data tools:
Participatory Rural Appraisal Techniques
Dr. Sindhu Sadanandan Dr. P. Natarajan
Dr. Dose Antony Dr. Vipinkumar. V. P.
P u h l h h c d b y
R a j i v G a n d h i C l i a i r i n C o i K e m p o r a r y S t u d i e s C o c f i i n I j n i v c r s i f y o f S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y
C o c h i n - 6 8 2 0 2 2
Prof. Dr, P. N aiarajaii R a jiv G a n d h i C lia ir Prol'essor,
C?ochin IJ iiiv c rs iiy o fS c R 'iic c and Ic c iin u lo iiy C o c h in -6 S 2 0 22
Tele phone : 04S4-257521!
e. 2007, R a jiv Ciandhi C lu u r in ( o n ic n ip u ta r y S liid u s
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JuM.' I’ rin tc ib S d u ili Kalaniassery C o ch in -
Phone: 04S4 - 2556324
S R E E S A N K A R A C H A R Y A U N I V E R S I T Y O F S A N S K R IT
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FOREWORD
P a r l i c i M t o r y RtirHl A p p r a is a ! ( P R A ) i m p re g n ates van ous p a n ic i p a l v r y approach es ar.C. i v e t h o d s f.'JSf e n a b le s a a e v e i o p r u e n t o a s e a on l o c a l knowlec Jg e S u c h an a p p ro a c h e ri 'i n c ia i e s app ra is a i. a n a l y s i s a n d a e c is io n m a k i n g b y l o c a l p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s tor the d e v e lO p : ii s n ; p r o c e s s w h ic h in (u rn O e iie .'i'fs t h e m o r t h e i r c o m m u n i t y a s s uc h T h e p u r p o s e r .l P R A IS eQvUaOle a n d i n c lu s iv e d e v e l o p i n e n i in tvhich m e p a n i c i p a n t r e c e iv e s b e n e h l s as
?.cco'd:rjg to the d e v e lo p m e n t p a t t e r n d e s ig n e d b y th e m H e n c e t lt e r e s p o n s ib ih ly o t sustaining t h e t:ci'elits r e s t s witr, t h e p a r t i c i p a n t a n a the suc c e s s r a t e o f s u c h in clusiv e d e v e lo p m e n t pa!te ':> IS signiiicar', l o r o b v io u s r e a s o n s .
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o f e s s i o i w i s a t R a / i v G a n d h i C h a i r h a s d e v e l o p e d a n d con 'Jiic to d a P R A 'D a ta T o o ls ' P a r . ic ip a t o r y R u r a l A p p r a i s a l T e c h n i q u e s ’ is p r im a rily the p r o d u c t a ! a n im p le m e n t a t io n p r o c e s s o l that P R A T o o l T h p h e l d t e s t w as e a r n e d o ut in A s s a n i a n n o o r P a n c h a y a t, O d a k a i i r e g i o n o l K a l a d y in S r n a k u i a m District. T h e d a t a toots d e v p i o p e d t o r a p p ra is in g r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t th ro ugh p a r t ic ip a t o r y m o d e is well e m b e d d e d w n r i n ii£ con te x t. T h e too ls a r e t o u n d to b e r e s p o n s iv e t o tli e p a r t ic ip a n ts ' n e e d s . It h a s i n c o r p o r a t e d te sso n s fro m p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s , a t t h e s a m e t im e do n o t d u p li c a te with o t h o i a ct iv ities F i e l d p e r s o n n e l h a v e fa ci li ta ted i h e d a ta c ollection a n d a n a ly s is u n d e r ta k e n b y lonul (w o p 'e . This tacihtation h a s a l s o f u n c t i o n e d a s a c o m m o n p l a l l o m i Ip rsti a r e d le a n ^ in g b e t w e e n l o c a l p e o p l e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t p r o l e s s i o n a l . T h e m a n a g e r s o ' t h e tool h a v e eiicOL'ragod cr e a t iv e s u g g e s t io n s f ro m lo cal p e o p l e in im p ro vin g t h e t o o l a n d also m o tiv a te d t h e i ie i a p e r s o n n e l m le a r n in g fro m h e l d s p e c il ic app li c a tio n o l P R A .
T h e p r e s e n t p u b li c a t io n h a s i n c o r p o r a t e d alt t h e n e w k n o w l e d g e , e s p e c ia ll y Held sp e c il i/ : tlint h a s b e e n r e c e i v e d Iro tn t h e v i ll a g e - b a s e d s t u d y T h e insi gh ts h a v e b e e n tre.nie nd cu s a n d a d d s ig n ih c a n t ly t o t h e tlieoretic a l k n o w l e d g e o l P R A .
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PREFACE
P a r t i c i p a t i o n i m p l i e s i n v o l v i n g l o c a l p e o p l e i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p la n s a n d a c tiv itie s d e s ig n e d fo r th e ir welfare. In it's a d v a n c e d form, p a rtic ip a tio n is a c o n tin u o u s p r o c e s s o f negotiation a n d d e cision m a k in g w h ic h o c c u rs a t v a rio u s le v e ls a n d with the w h o le c o m m u n ity o f s ta k e h o ld e rs . This c o u ld b e a c h ie v e d through v a rio u s p a rtic ip a to r y m e th o d s in c lu d in g p a rtic ip a to ry ru ral a p p ra is a l t e c h n i q u e s ( P R A ) , p a r t i c i p a t o r y l e a r n i n g a n d a c t i o n (P L A ), p a r ’J c i p a l o r y a c tio n r e s e a r c h (PAf>), p a r t i c i p a t o r y t e c h n o lo g y d e v e lo p m e n t (P T D ), a n d fa r m e r fie ld s c h o o l (F F S ). A m o n g these, P R A h a s b e c o m e m o r e p o p u l a r a m o n g f i e l d p r a c t i t i o n e r s , d e v e lo p m e n t re s e a rc h e r s a n d o th e r p ro te s s io a a is s in c e it funcd'ons a s a n effective m e d iu m to in v o lv e loca l p e o p le In th e d e cision making, r e s e a rc h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t p ro ce sse s.
P R A w a s first u s e d in the late 198Gs. S in ce then it be ca m e w id e ly u s e d in m a n y c o n te x ts including, c o m m u n ity developm ent, in d ig e n o u s te c h n o lo g y a s s e s s m e n t, liv e lih o o d e n h a n c e m e n t a n d o th e r d e v e lo p m e n t in itia tiv e s . The im p o rta n c e o f P R A lie s in its u n iq u e n e s s in a d a p tin g to lo c a l situations. T he to o ls d e v e lo p e d in th e p re s e n f coniexJ h a v e b e e n a p p lie d in a s e le c te d villa g e in Kerala.
T he o u tco m e o f s u c h a n e x p e rim e n t is w orth e m u la tiv e fo r estimating ru ra l p e c u lia ritie s r e la te d to agriculture, fisheries, liv e s to c k a n d o th e r liv e lih o o d o p tio n s o f r u r a l p o p u la tio n . The e x p e c ta tio n from writing th is b o o k w o u ld b e f u l f i ll e d i f m a n y o f o u r v o lu n t e e r s o f r u r a l d e vefopm erit, e n g a g e d in p o lic y -m a k in g , a c tio n a n d re s e a rc h can re a liz e th a t p a rtic ip a tio n o f ru r a l p e o p le is p o s s ib le a n d beneficial.
T h e y can fu r th e r s p re a d th e m e s s a g e o f p a rtic ip a tio n from th e ir ow n e x p e rie n c e s .
The a u th o rs a r e g r e a t l / th a n k fu l to th e M in is t r y o f H um an R e s o u r c e s D e v e lo p rrie n t ( M H R D ), G o v t O f In d ia f o r p ro v id in g n e c e s s a r y g ra n t to b rin g o u t th is v a lu a b le c o n tr ib u tio n . T he authors a ls o e x p re s s th e ir p r o f o u n d g r a titu d e to Prot. (D r.) P. K. A b d u l Azis, V ic e -C h a n c e llo r, C o c h in U n iv e r s ity o f S c ie n c e a n d T e c h n o lo g y for h is c o n s ta n t e n c o u ra g e m e n t, a d v ic e a n d support.
V e ry s p e c ia l t h a n k s a r e d u e to M s. R a ji K .P illa i. Vinod M a la y ile th u . D ee p a . G .D , A n e e s h K u m a r K . V a n d D ip s o n . P .T of R a j i v G a n d h i C h a ir in C o n t e m p o r a r y S t u d ie s f o r th e ir s in c e re a s s o c ia tio n with this im p o r ta n t work. W e a r c o b lig e d to Mr. Jose C h e ria n a n d M r Ginu. M /s J o s e P rin te rs fo r th e n e a t c x c c u tio n o f this p u b lic a tio n .
A uthors
CONTENTS
F o r e w o r d P re fa c e
i n t r o d u c t i o n ... 9
P a rtic ip a to ry M e th o d s : A n O v e r v i e w ... 20
P a rtic ip a to ry R ural A p p ra is a l (P R A ) T e c h n iq u e s IVJapping T e c h n iq u e s ■ S ocial m a p p i n g ... 22
■ R es o u rc e m a p ...24
■ M o b ility m a p ... 26
■ B asic in fo rm a tio n m a p ... 27
■ T ra n s e c t w a l k s ...27
■ V enn d i a g r a m s ... 29
R a n k in g E xe rc is e s ■ P re fe re n c e r a n k i n g ... 30
■ P ro b le m t r e e ... 32
■ im p a c t d i a g r a m ... 34
■ B io -re so u rce flo w d ia g r a m ... 35
T r e n d A n a ly s t s ■ T im e l i n e ...36
■ Tim e t r e n d ... 37
■ S e a s o n a lity a n a ly s is ...38
« Daily a ctivity c h a r t s ... 40
S u m m a r y ...43 R e f e r e n c e s
INTRODUCTION
I n s t i t u t i o n s o f a ll t y p e s h a v e lo n g b e e n r e l ie d o n q u e s tio n n a ire s u rv e y s a n d q u ic k rural visits to g a th e r info rm a tio n on rural p e o p le and rural re s o u rc e s . S a m p le s o f p e o p le se le c te d from a larg e p o p u la tio n a re a s k e d the s a m e set o f q u e s tio n s , a n d so it is a s s u m e d th a t the in te rv ie w e rs d o n o t in flu e n c e th e p rocess. Many in f o r m a n t s a re s e le c t e d t o a c c o u n t to r all v a r ia tio n s , a n d th e re q u e s tin g d a ta a re s ta t is t ic a lly a n a ly z e d . S u re ly th e s e s u rv e y m e th o d s a re g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d fo r d ata c o lle c tio n a n d are used.
B ut th e r e are p ro b le m s w ith q u e s tio n n a ir e sun/e ys. T he q u e s tio n n a ire m a k e r has to d e te rm in e the q u e s tio n s w ell in advance.
Y e t th o s e w h o d e s ig n th e s e in s tru m e n ts m a y not k n o w w hich issues a re im p o rta n t fo r local p e o p le . So th e y te n d to in c re a s e the n u m b e r o f q u e s tio n s to e n s u re th a t all re le v a n t is s ue s a re co v e re d . T his le a d s to fo rm s o f a b s u rd length, w ith se v e ra l h u n d re d questio n s c o n s u m in g hours to a d m in is te r. In the structured su rvey, the ill trained e n u m e r a t o r f u r t h e r i n f lu e n c e s th e p r o c e s s b y p r o m p t in g w ith a n s w e rs . In a q u e s tio n n a ire survey, people are the o b je c ts of enquiry o r in v e s tig a tio n a n d are tre a te d as p a s s iv e en titie s. T h e y h ave no in v o lv e m e n t in th e e n q u iry g o in g on a n d c a n n o t in flu e n c e its sense a n d d ire c tio n . T h e o u ts id e rs ' u n d e rs ta n d in g o f a s itu a tio n o r a p h e n o m e n o n is c o n s id e r e d th e o b je c tiv e . T h e d u ra tio n o f tim e in v o lv e d fro m d e s ig n in g a q u e s tio n n a ir e s u rv e y to p u b lis h in g its results te n d s to be a long a n d ela b o ra te process. A s a consequence, m u c h o f th e in f o r m a t io n c o lle c t e d th r o u g h a s u r v e y b e c o m e s o u td a te d and o f lim ite d u s e in fra m in g of p o lic ie s a n d p ro g ra m m e s.
T h e fallacies of p re s u m p tio n fro m the top h ave d o n e e n o u g h d a m a g e to th e p ursuit o f rural d e v e lo p m e n t. M a n y of th e a m b itio u s targets o f rural d e v e lo p m e n t h a v e b e e n met, yet, a larg e p ro p o rtio n o f rural rria s s e s re m a in s in d e p lo r a b le c o n d itio n s of e x is te n c e a n d the p ro g ra m m e s h ave la rg e ly b e n e fite d th e “b e tte r o ffs" in rural areas.
A s e m p irically e v id e n t fr o m th e e x p e rie n c e s of m a n y developing c o u n tr ie s , th e c o n v e n tio n a l a p p ro a c h h a s c o n s is te n tly fa ile d to a n s w e r the p h e n o m e n a o f p overty, u n e m p lo y m e n t, in e q u a lity and e c o lo g i c a l d e g r a d a t io n s . It is b e in g s lo w ly r e a lis e d t h a t o u r c o n v e n tio n a l m o d e ls a re n e ith e r realistic n o r s u s ta in a b le in th e long run. A s a re s u lt o f th e d is illu s io n m e n t fro m the c o n v e n tio n a l m odels s o m e e ffo rts w e re b e in g m a d e in diffe re n t q u a rte rs to w a rd s realistic
m e th o d s , m o d e ls a n d a p p ro a c h e s . A s a result, a m u ltitu d e ot field - o r ie n te d m e th o d s e m e r g e d in the s c e n e N e v ; a p p r o a c h e s and m e th o d s s u c h a s fa rm in g s y s te m re se a rch , e x p lo r a to ry su /v e y , rapia ru ra l a p p ra is a l a n d o th e rs , w h e th e r th ro u g h o b s e r v a tio n or through p a rtic ip a tio n , a tte m p te d to u n d e rs ta rid the p ro b le m s oI re s o u rc e - p o o r fa rm e rs a n d im p ro v e d th e q u a lity of in fo r m a tio n co lle cte d on th e m b y o v e rc o m in g the d e fic ie n c ie s of th e c o n v e n tio n a l survey m e th o d .
T h e re q u ire m e n t of th e shifting p a ra d ig m o f d evelopm ent w a s n o t o n ly a re la tive ly q u ic k e r m e th o d o f d a ta c o lle c tio n but also o n e w h ic h w o u ld h e lp local p e o p le to p e rfo rm th e ir o^vn analysis.
H e n c e , c e rta in e le m e n ts w e r e re q u ire d to b e m c o rp o ra io c ) m Rapid R u ra l A p p ra is a l (R R A ) and o th e r field- o rie n te d m e th o d s to make th e m pa rticip a to ry. It w a s a s h ift of e m p h a s is fr o m ra p id or quick to p a rtic ip a to ry and e m p o w e rin g w h ic h titled w e ll w ith a participatory a p p ro a c h to rural d e v e lo p m e n t and b e c a m e th e s ta rtin g point of P a rtic ip a to ry R ural A p p ra is a l (P H A).
P A R T IC IP A T O R Y R U R A L A P P R A IS A L (P R A )
T h e origin of P R A a s a m e th o d o lo g y c a n b o fta c o d back to th e m u ltitu d e of m e th o d s a n d a p p ro a c h e s , w h ic h g r a d u a lly emerged s in c e the s e v e n tie s m a m ly d u e to u n s a tis fa c to ry re s u lts obtained f r o m th e a p p lic a tio n o f t h e c o n v e n tio n a l m e t h o d o lo g y to rural d e v e lo p m e n t.
In a very s h o rt tim e P R A as a m e th o d o lo g y hrts gained in s tr e n g t h th r o u g h its e m p h a s is on p a r t ic ip a tio n in lin e w ith the p a ra d ig m a tic shift w h ic h is s lo w ly ta k in g p la c e a n d h a s h e lp e d to fill th e v a c u u m existing in the s p h e re of rural d e v e lo p m e n t. Participatory ru r a l a p p ra is a l is a m e t h o d o lo g y fo r i n t e r a c t in g w it h v illa ge rs, u n d e rs ta n d in g th e m a n d le a rn in g fro m th e m . It in v o lv e s a set of p r in c ip le s , a p ro c e s s o f c o m m u n ic a lio n s a n d a m e n u o f m e th o d s for s e e k in g v illa g e rs ' p a rtic ip a tio n in p u ttin g fo rw a rd th e ir p o in ts of view a n y is s u e s a n d e n a b lin g th e m to d o th e ir o w n a n a ly s is w ith a view to m a k e use of such le a rn in g . It initia te s a p a rtic ip a to r y p ro c e s s and s u s ta in s it.
P R A is a m e a n s o f c o lle c tin g d if f e r e n t k in d s o f data.
Id e n t if y in g a n d m o b i li z in g in t e n d e d g r o u p s a n d e v o k in g th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n a n d a ls o o p e n in g w a y s in v .fu c fi jn l c n d e d g ro u p s can
p a r t ic ip a te in d e c is io n m a k in g , p r o je c t d e s ig n , e x e c u tio n a n d m o n ito r in g . B e c a u s e o f its p a r t ic ip a to r y n a tu r e , it is a u s e fu l m e th o d o lo g y to fo c u s a tte n tio n o n p eople, Ih e ir liv e litio o d s a n d their in te r re la tio n s h ip s w ith s o c io - e c o n o m ic a n d e c o lo g ic a l fa c to rs . P a rtic ip a to ry rural a p p ra is a l is a short- c u t m e th o d o f d a ta collection.
It is a m e th o d o lo g y fo r a c tio n re s e a rc h e s w hic h , u tiliz e s a range of te c h n iq u e s . It in v o lv e s lo c a l p e o p le a n d o u ts id e rs fr o m diffe re n t se c to rs and d is c ip lin e . O u ts id e r s facilitate local p e o p le in analyzing info rm a tio n , p ra cticin g c ritic a l self- a w a re n e s s , ta k in g responsibility a n d sharing th e ir k n o w le d g e o f life and c o n d itio n s to plan and to act.
O B J E C T IV E S O F P R A
The use of P R A lie s in p u rs u in g s e le c te d o b je c tiv e s through a p p lic a tio n s o f its p rin c ip le s , p ro c e s s e s a n d m e thods. S om e o f the o b je c tiv e s a re g iv e n below:
a) For g re a te r and b e tte r in v o lv e m e n t o f v illa g e rs by learning ab o u t th e ir p e rc e p tio n s , e x p e rie n c e and ca pabilities.
b) T o g e n e ra te in fo rm a tio n and collection o f d a ta for im m ediate o r fu tu re use.
c) For learning a b o u t th e im p a c ts of e a rlie r o r o n -g o in g policies and p ro g ra m m e s a n d to fra m e n e w ones.
d) For e s tim a tin g tr e n d s a n d a s c e rta in in g c o n d itio n s of their issues.
e) For va lid a tio n o r c ro s s ch e c k in g o f d a ta c o lle c te d fro m other sources.
P RA is a p ro c e s s o f p a rtic ip a tio n w ith th e v illa g e rs in w hich ra p p o rt build in g p a v e s th e w a y for th e m to p e rfo rm th e ir own a n a ly s is a n d to e x p r e s s th e m s e lv e s w h e th e r b y m e a n s of
"ve rb a ls" like n a rra tio n o r “v is u a ls ” such as m a k in g a map.
W H Y PRA?
P a rticip a to ry R ura l A p p ra is a l is e m e rg e d as a re sp o n s e to two m a jo r c o n c e rn s of rural social research not a d e q u a te ly satisfied by c o n v e n tio n a l m e th o d s .
• T o d e v e lo p local p e rs p e c tiv e by b e c o m in g m o re responsive to local p e o p le a n d loca l situations.
• T o e v o lv e a m e th o d o lo g y w h ic h c a n p r o v id e tim e ly and cost e fte c tiv e in fo rm a tio n .
H o w e v e r th e s h ift fr o m R R A to P R A re p r e s e n ts a change in attitu d e , o b je c tiv e s a n d o u tc o m e s .
P R IN C IP L E S O F P R A
1) O p tio n al ig n o ra n c e . T h is refers to the im p o rta n c e of knowing w h a t it is n o t w o rth k n o w in g . It a v o id s u n n e c e s s a ry details a n d irre le v a n t d a ta , it d o e s n o t m e a s u r e m o re pre cise ly than is n e e d e d a n d it o p tim iz e s tra d e of b e tw e e n q u a lity , relevance, a c c u ra c y and tim e lin e s s .
2 ) S e e k in g d iv e rs ity : P R A is c o n c e r n e d m o re w ith analysis of difference rather th a n lo o k in g for re p r e s e n ta tiv e n e s s of results o r da ta collected. It is lo o k in g for d iv e rs e rural e v e n ts , different p ro c e s s e s a n d fo rc e s e x p la in in g v a rio u s re la tio n s h ip s in rural c o m m un itie s.
3 ) O ffs e ttin g b ia s e s ; E s p e c ia lly u s e d in ru ra l d e v e lo p m e n t tou rism , w h ic h in c lu d e s b y b e in g re la x o d ;m d not rushing, listen in g not lec tu rin g , p ro b in g in s te a d o f p a s s in g the next topic, b e in g u n im p o s e d in s te a d of im p o ru in t, a n d seeking out the p o o re r p e o p le a n d th e ir c o n c e rn s .
4 ) T ria n g u la tio n : It is a n im p o rta n t p a ri of P R A . F-or a n y data g e n e ra te d , it is e s s e n tia l to c h o c k the ro lia h ility a n d validity of th e da ta b y p u ttin g th e m to d ifle r o n l t c s is T ria n g u la tio n is c ro s s ch e c k in g the d a ta m d ilfe re n t w a y s It is d o n e through u s e s o f v a rio u s m e th o d s a n d b y u s in g d iffe re n t s o u rc e s to v a lid a te info rm a tio n . T ria n g u la tio n is a d o p te d a s a principle to im p ro v e a c c u r a c y . It in v o lv e s c o n s c io u s , n o n random se le ctio n in d iffe re n t d im e n s io n s s u c h a s a) te a m composition, b) u n its of o b s e rv a tio n , c) P R A tne th o d s.
T e a m c o m p o s itio n is g e n e ra lly inte r d is c ip lin a ry a n d can be c o n s titu te d in s u c h a m a n n e r s o as to h a v e th e information g e n e r a t e d f r o m d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e u n it s of o b s e rv a tio n c a n b e c h a n g e d in o r d e r to c r o s s c h e c k the in f o r m a t io n g a in e d n e c e s s a r y . F o r e .g ; s e m i s tru c tu re d in te rv ie w s c a n be s u p p le m e n te d b y fa r m m a p s , livelihood a n a ly s is a n d flo w c h a rts .
5 ) L e a rn in g fr o m a n d w ith rural peop le; P R A m e th o d s are u sed d ire c tly , a n d o n th e site, w h ic h in c lu d e face to face interaction g a in in g fr o m th e in d ig e n o u s ph ysica l, technical and social k n o w le d g e .
6) L e a r n in g r a p i d l y a n d p r o g r e s s i v e ly : In P R A , th e a m o u n t o f le a r n in g c a n i n c r e a s e p r o g r e s s iv e ly w it h c o n s c io u s e x p l o r a t i o n , f l e x i b l e u s e o f m e t h o d s , o p p o r t u n i s m , im p ro v is a tio n , in te ra c tio n a n d cro ss c h e c k in g , not follow ing a b lue print p ro g ra m b u t a d apting th ro u g h a le a rn in g process.
F E A T U R E S O F P R A
P R A has th e fo llo w in g u n iq u e features:
1) Ite r a tiv e : G o a ls a n d o b je c tiv e s a re m o d ifie d as the team re a liz e s w h a t is o r is n o t re le v a n t. T h e n e w ly g e n e ra te d info rm a tio n h e lp s t o s e t the a g e n d a fo r fu r th e r analysis. This involves th e ” le a rn in g a s you go'’ principle.
2) In n o v a tiv e : In n o v a t iv e te c h n iq u e s a r e d e v e lo p e d for pa rticu la r s itu a tio n s d e p e n d in g on the s k ills a n d know le d g e available,
3) In tera c tiv e : In P R A th e te a m a n d d is c ip lin e s c o m b in e to g e th e r in a w a y th a t fo s te rs inn o va tio n a n d inte rd iscip lin a ry action . A s y s te m p e rs p e c tiv e h e lp s m a k e c o m m u n ic a tio n easy.
4) informal: It fo c u s e s on partly structured inform al interviews and discussions.
5) C o m m u n ity P a rtic ip a tio n : H e re le a r n in g ta k e s place largely in th e fie ld o r im m e d ia te ly after, o r in th e intensive w orksh o p s. C o m m u n ity p e rs p e c tiv e s a re u s e d to h elp define d iffe re n ce s in fie ld c o n d itio n s.
K IN D S OF PRA
P R A can b e of d iffe re n t k in d s a) E x p lo ra to ry P R A
A P RA e x e rc is e c a n be u n d e rta k e n for u n d e rs ta n d in g broad pa tterns a n d tre n d s in a rural society. S u c h e x p lo ra to ry P RA are quite c o m m o n to reveal d iffe re n t a s p e c ts o f rural life and
a ls o s u g g e s t im p o rta n t is s u e s to be p u rs u e d . It c a n fo rm a b a s is for fu rth e r p ro b in g into s e le c te d a r e a s w h ic h appear im p o rta n t a n d u seful. A th e m e fo r fu rth e r a n a ly s is can emerge o u t of such e x p lo ra tio n w h ic h c a n h e lp in u n d e rta k in g either a P R A e x e rc is e o r h e lp in fra m in g a s u rv e y q u e s tio n n a ir e on re a listic lines.
b) T o p ic a l P R A
T h is h a s to d o w ith a p a rtic u la r to p ic w h ic h e it h e r c o n stitu te s th e a r e a o f in v e s t ig a t io n b y th e o u t s i d e r s o r h a s b een s u g g e s te d by th e v illa g e r s a s a k e y a re a to b e fo c u s e d . For eg ., in a th e m e like " s e a s o n a lity " ot ru r a l life. P R A c a n help in e x p lo r in g d i f f e r e n t d im e n s i o n s o f t h e tfio rriG u n d e r c o n s id e ra tio n , A to p ic c a n be p ro b e d a c r o s s d iffe r e n t groups in v illa g e , a c ro s s g e n d e r , c a s te , a g e e tc , a s a c o n im u n ity a n d o v e r t im e . I t ’s o b j e c t i v e is to g e n e r a t K a s m u c h in fo rm a tio n as p o s s ib le o n a s e le c te d to p ic It is inte n sive in its a p p ro a c h a n d c a n h elp in the a n a ly s is o i h p a rticu la r to p ic a t g re a t le n g th .
0) D ed u c tiv e PRA;
A P R A e x e rc is e c a n b e c o n d u c te d on d iffe r e n t ar.pects of v illa g e life w h ic h c a n b e p r o v id e d a s a b a s is fo r h a vin g in fo rm a tio n on th e m e s not d ire c tly a tte n d e d th ro u g h PRA.
T h is can help m re la tin g d iffe re n t a s p e c ts of th e p ro b le m to o th e r fa c to rs a n d a ls o in d e a lin g w it h s e n s it iv e issues.
D e d u c tiv e P R A is e s p e c ia lly h e lp fu l v /h e n its e rl for them es w h ic h re q u ire ta ct a n d c a n n o t be d ire c tly p ro b e d cn a ccount o f the n a tu re of th e s u b je c t c o n c e r n e d s u c h a s c o m m un a l te n s io n s , c la s s s tru g g le s , c o rru p tio n etc. th e r e c a n be some topics, w h ic h a re e ffic ie n tly tre a te d th ro u g h re ia tin c tn e m with d if fe r e n t a s p e c ts o f v illa g e life r a t h e r th a n tr e a tin g th e m th ro u g h d ire c t p ro b in g fo r eg, to le a rn a b o u t t!;e im p a c t of local c o rru p tio n in a v illa g e , d ire c t q u e s tio n s o n corruption m a y not y ie ld m u c h re s p o n s e . P R A s e s s io n s on diffe re n t a s p e c t s of v i ll a g e lif e re la te d to c o r r u p t i o n w o u ld give in d ic a tio n s of its e x te n t to im pact.
d) P R A fo r R e s e a r c h a n d T ra in in g
P R A s' can b e u s e d fo r the purpose o f re se a rch in g in the form s of pa rticip a tio n , p ro c e s s e s a n d m e th o d s . P R A can be of a training ty p e fo r tra in in g o f diffe re n t g ro u p s o f professionals w h o are lik e ly to u s e th e m in th e ir fie ld w o r k o r fo r further training.
e) PR A fo r P la n n in g a n d Im p le m e n ta tio n
P R A c a n b e c o n d u c t e d f o r d e s i g n i n g p r o j e c t s a n d im p le m e n tin g th e m .
All s ta g e s o f a p ro je c t cycle can be b a s e d o n P R A techniques.
It c a n m a k e p ro je c ts m o re a d a p ta b le to loca l needs. If village c o m m u n itie s o r g r o u p s are in v o iv e d in a p ro je c t right from its initiation, th e c h a n c e s o f s u s ta in a b ility o f th e p ro je c t increase th r o u g h p e o p le s ' p a r t ic i p a t i o n . F o r e g , if a p r o je c t is e n d o g e n o u s ly s e t u p in a villa ge , th e c h a n c e s of s u c ce ss of th a t p ro je c t a re lo w . T h e risk b e a rin g b e h a v io u r s of the be n e fic ia rie s a re e x p e c te d to be h ig h e r In all c a s e s where the local p e o p le o r th e inte n d e d b e n e fic ia rie s participate in ch o o s in g th e pro je ct.
F) M o n ito rin g a n d E v a lu a tiv e PR A
PR A can fo rm a b a sis for monitoring a n d e va lu a tio n o f projects and p ro g ra m m e s . It c a n to u ch u p o n the p ro b le m s fa ce d by the c o m m u n ity / g ro u p s / h o u s e h o ld s in ru n n in g of projects.
W ith the id e n tific a tio n o f pro b le m s, o p e ra tio n o f projects can be b e tte r in fo rm e d a n d s o lu tio n s to a v o id o r resolve those p ro b le m s c a n b e s o u g h t th ro u g h P R A . A b e fo re a n d a fte r c o m p a ris o n o f p ro je c ts can be u n d e rta k e n fo r pro je cts which h ave e ith e r in v o lv e d P R A m e th o d s in p ro je c t fo rm u la tio n and app ra isa l o r th o s e w h ic h h ave not u s e d th e m a t all.
C O N V E N T IO N A L C R I T E R IA A N D T R U S T W O R T H IN E S S O F P A R T IC IP A T O R Y IN Q U IR Y
C o n v e n tio n a l c rite ria h ave lim ited re le v a n c e fo r e valuating pa rtic ip a to ry in q u iry o n a c c o u n t of th e fo llo w in g reasons.
• Basic d iffe re n c e s in p a ra d ig m s of the tw o s y s te m s of inquiry.
• G e n e r a tio n o f b o th q u a lita tiv e a n d q u a n tita t iv e d a ta in a p a rtic ip a to ry in q u iry ,
• O p e n q u e s tio n s le a d to m u ltip le te s p o n s o s a ii d h e n c e leave s c o p e for c o n s id e r a b le v a ria tio n s.
• O u tlie rs are a ls o c o n s id e re d to be im p o rta n t in a (jarlicipatory in q u iry ; th e y a ls o n e e d to b e e x p la in e d a s m u c h as the 'a v e ra g e ' pictu re .
In P R A , all a c to rs h a v e d iffe re n t p e r s p e c t iv e s and their k n o w le d g e a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g a re s o c ia lly c o n s tr u c te d . T h e re are m u ltip le p e rs p e c tiv e s on a p ro b le m s itu a tio n a n d th e r e a re different w a y s o f e x p re s s in g o n e 's v ie w s . In c a s e of P R A m e th o d , a s tandard w a y to te st the tru s t w o r th in e s s of d a ta is to a p p ly 'tria n g u la tio n '.
W H A T IS T R IA N G U L A T IO N ?
T e a m c o m p o s itio n is g e n e ra lly in te r-d is c ip lin a r y and c a n be c o n s titu te d in such a m a n n e r so as to h a v e th e in fo rm a tio n gene ra te d fr o m d iffe re n t p e rs p e c tiv e s . T e a m s c a n h a v e p e r s o n s fro m difterent d is c ip lin e s , sex, c u ltu re a n d e x p e rie n c e so th a t d a ta e m e rg in g from P R A c a n b e d is c u s s e d w ith in a te a m a n d w ith lo c a l p e o p le by a t e a m to c la rify is s u e s a n d s e le c t is s u e s for fu r th e r p ro b in g . T h e units o f o b s e rv a tio n can be c h a n g e d in o rd e r to c ro s s c h e c k th e inform ation g a in e d . D if fe r e n t g r o u p s c a n be a p p r o a c h e d s e p a r a t e ly or its c o m b in a tio n so a s to a rriv e at v ie w s fro m d iffe r e n t a n g le s . O th e r s o u r c e s o f in fo rm a tio n s u c h a s s e c o n d a ry d a ta s o u r c e s can also be u s e d to e x a m in e tru s tw o rth in e s s of P R A data. D iffe re n t P R A m ethods c a n b e u s e d to te st a n d v e rify a p ie ce of in fo rm a tio n . F o r eg, semi s tr u c tu r e d in te rv ie w s c a n b e s u p p le m e n te d b y m a p s , liv e lih o o d a n a ly s is a n d flo w c h a r t s o a s to c h e c k a n d c r o s s - c h e c k the in fo rm a tio n o b ta in e d .
R IS K S O F PRA
W h ile P R A h a s m a n y a d v a n ta g e s , it is not w ith o u t risks.
S om e o f th e s e risks c a n b e p re v e n te d a n d s o m e c a n be m itigated w h e n arise, but o th e rs c a n be q u ite se rio u s a n d d ifficult. In all cases, it is b est to be a w a re o f th e m . E x a m p le s o f s o m e c o m m o n risks are as follows:
1) R aisin g e x p e c ta tio n s
T he in te n s e in v o lv e m e n t of local p e o p le in the P RA process te n d s to g e n e ra te m u c h e n th u s ia s m a n d a n tic ip a tio n a b o u t Ihe d e v e lo p m e n t a c tio n s t h a t th e y h a v e id e n tifie d a n d th u s builds m o m e n tu m fo r c h a n g e . A lth o u g h th is is a p o s itiv e a spect, it can c a u s e p ro b le m s if s u p p o rts for im p le m e n ta tio n s a re not forthcoming.
It is esse n tia l th a t the app ra isa l te a m to be h o n e st and clear, fro m th e b e g in n in g a n d th ro u g h o u t th e p ro c e s s , ab o u t w h e th e r o r n o t re s o u rc e s fro m o u t s id e d e v e lo p m e n t in s titu tio n s will be m ade a v a ila b le . If o u ts id e re s o u rc e s are not a v a ila b le , th e fo cu s m ust be o n d e v e lo p m e n t a c tiv it ie s th a t c a n be im p le m e n t e d w ith loca l re s o u rc e s only. If re s o u rc e s are fo rth co m in g , th e n it is im p o rta n t to give realistic e s tim a te s w h e n they will be a v a ila b le , say in a month, six m o n th s o r a year.
2) R e v e a lin g f a i lu r e
W h e n th e P R A is c a rrie d out w h e re d e v e lo p m e n t activities are a lre a d y be in g im p le m e n te d , the fe e lin g s m a y reveal negative im pacts, failure o r n e e d s im p ro v e m e n t. In such ca s e s , the P R A team has tw o re sp o n s ib ilitie s .
a) to c o m m u n ic a te th e bad n e w s to th e su p p o rtin g institutions,
b ) to e x p lo re to g e th e r w ith the c o m m u n itie s va rio u s options tor s o lu tio n s a n d im p ro v e m e n ts . T h is c a n put th e te a m m e m b e rs in th e d ifficu lt position of try in g to p e rsuade others to c h a n g e a p ro g ra m m e to m a k e it m o re re sp o n sive to local n e e d s. D e p e n d in g on th e a ttitu d e s a n d fle x ib ility o f the p ro je c t s ta ff a n d s u p p o rtin g in s titu tio n s , th is m a y be a c o n te n tio u s is s u e or it m a y lead to a n excitin g p rocess of a d a p ta tio n s th r o u g h in c re a s e d c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith local w o m e n a n d m e n .
3) L e a r n in g a b o u t illeg al a c tiv itie s
It IS not u n c o m m o n lo r P R A fin d in g s to re v e a l a c tiv itie s that a re a g a m s t n a tio n a l law s. F o r eg; in a v illa g e m N e p a l, it w a s learned th a t w o m e n w e re c lim b in g o v e r the w a lls a ro u n d a p ro te c te d forest, at n ig h t in o rd e r to c o lle c t fuel w o o d and fo d d e r. T li o right w a y in h a n d l i n g s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n d e p e n d s o n t h e o p e n n e s s and
r G s p o n s i v e n e s s of the g o v e rn m e n t In no c a s e , s u c h i;!fo m 'a tio n c a n b e u s e d in any w a y th a t m ig h t result in s e n o u s s a n c tio n s on the
v i l l a g e th a t p a rtic ip a te d in th e PRA.
4 ) S tir rin g up c o n flic ts
It is n o t a lw a y s the c a s e th a t the P R A p ro c e s s le a d s to c o n s e n s u s ; in d e e d it m a y e x p o s e d e e p d iffe re n c e s and c o n flic t a m o n g various g ro u p s . T h e p ro c e s s c a n a ls o b e s e e n as a c h a lle n g e a n d ttire a t by th e m o r e p o w e rfu l g ro u p s b e c a u s e o f its e m p h a s is o n e n s u rin g that w o m e n a n d d is a d v a n ta g e d g r o u p s p a rtic ip a te fu lly . W h e n such c o n flic t b e c o m e s a p p a re n t, o r is v e ry likely to o c c u r, th e P R A team h a s o n ly tw o o p tio n s e ither;
A ) to sto p the P R A , o r
B) to u s e n e g o tia tio n a n d c o n flic t re s o lu tio n m e th o d s to e x p licitly a c k n o w le d g e and w o rk w ith th e c o n flic ts P r e c a u tio n s in th e u s e of P R A T O O L S
■ A loo l (a n y to o l) is o n ly as g o o d a s its u s e r. M uch of tiie v a lid ity of P R A o u tp u t s d e p e n d s o n its u s e r s ’ cre a tiv ity , inte g rity a n d th e s itu a tio n a l a p p ro p ria te n e s s o f th e m e th o d se le cte d .
■ T h e use r m u s t c le a r ly d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n p e rc e p tio n s and o p in io n s in a n a ly s is a n d p lanning
■ T h e s e le c tio n of in f o r m a n t s h a s to b e d o n e v /ith c a re . E ve ry b o d y d o e s n o t k n o w e ve ryth in g n e ith e r d o e s e v e ry b o d y lio id a v ie w 0!i all SLibiects
■ T h e view s e x p r e s s e d b y a fe w m e m b e r s c a n n o t be ta ke n a s a g e n e ra l viev; h e ld by all.
■ C ro s s v e rific a tio n of d a ta is a n e c e s s a ry p a r t of a c o m p le te P R A e x e rc is e
D o c u m e n ta tio n p o s s e s s e s se v e ra l d iffic u ltie s d u e to the w ea lth of in fo rm a tio n g e n e ra te d anci th e n e e d to keep track of both p ro c e s s a n d o u tp u t in w a y s u n d e rs ta n d a b le to all parties in v o lv e d is e sse n tia l.
PRA e x e rc is e s m a y ra ise th e e x p e c ta tio n s o f participants t h e r e f o r e h a v e t o b e c a r e f u l l y i n i t i a t e d w it h p r o p e r exp la n a tio n s .
Data tools: P a rtic ip a lo iy Rural Appraisal Techniques
PARTICIPATORY METHODS
F or d e v e lo p in g a n y pla n o n e h a s !o firs t c o iie c ! the basic in fo r m a tio n of th e a re a . B a s e d on th e s e b a s ic in to r m a iio n and a p p lic a tio n of our k n o w le d g e , and ta k in g in to a c c o u n t the resources a v a ila b le u n d e r v a rio u s d e v e lo p m e n t s c h e m e s , o n e h a s to d e v e lo p th e p la n . O u r u ltim a te o b )e c tiv e is to b u ild th e c a p a c ity o i ih e people a n d m a k e th e d e v e lo p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s u s t a i n a b l e B u t the q u e s tio n is tio w w e will c o lle c t th e n e c c s s a r y in fo rm a tio n . W h a t w ill b e the p ro c e d u re fo r ta k in g d e c is io n s r e g a r d in g s e le c tio n of s c h e m e a n d b e n e fic ia r ie s ? H o w wiK w e m o n ito r th e p ro g ra m m e ? A ll th e s e q u e s tio n s a ris e b e c a u s e th e u ltim a te o b je c tiv e is to ensure p e o p l e ’s p a r t ic i p a t i o n a n d e m p o w e r m e n t . T h e r e a r e v a r io u s p a rtic ip a to r y m e th o d s , w h ic h h a v e b e e n u s e d o v e r th e last few d e c a d e s . S o m e o f th e s e a re : th e B e n e fic ia ry A s s e s s m e n t M e th o d (B A ), S A R A R a n d P a rtic ip a to r y R ura l A p p r a is a l (P R A ), BA is a s y s te m a tic in v e s tig a tio n o f th e p e r c e p tio n s of th e b e n e fic ia r ie s and o t h e r s ta k e h o ld e rs , S A R A R s ta n d s fo r fiv e a ttr ib u te s , n a m e ly s e lf
e s te e m , a s s o c ia tiv e s tre n g th , re s o u rc e fu ln e s s , a c tio n p la n n in g and re s p o n s ib ility to fo llo w th ro u g h , w h ic h are c o n s id e r e d to b e critically i m p o r t a n t fo r a c h i e v i n g f u l l a n d c o m m i t t e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in d e v e lo p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s . P R A h a s e v o lv e d f r o m R a p id R ural A p p r a is a l (R R A ), w h ic h is a p ro c e s s o f a p p ra is a l, a n a ly s is a n d a c tio n b y loca l p e o p le th e m s e lv e s . T h e p io n e e r in g w o r k o f R o b e rt C h a m b e r s a n d G o r d o n C o n w a y in a te c h n iq u e c a lle d ra p id rural a p p r a is a l (R R A ) w a s o n e e x a m p le o f a n a t t e m p t to in c lu d e the in te r e s ts o f the p o o r in th e d e s ig n of p r o g r a m m e s a n d p ro je c ts . T h e irrip o ria n c e o f R R A w a s that, it r e c o g n iz e d th e n e e d to c o n s u lt t h e p o o r on th e ir n e e d s a n d it s h o w e d v e r y q u ic k ly th e in h e re n t J jm ita tjo n s o f th is s u p e r f ic ia l lo u r to re a lity . R R A is m a in ly s e e n as a m e a n s fo r o u ts id e rs to g a th e r in fo rm a tio n ; a n d h e n c e , th e n eed to re p la c e o r s u p p le m e n t it w ith P a rtic ip a to ry R u ra l A p p ra is a l (P R A ) w h ic h e m p o w e rs th e lo c a l p e o p le . P R A is a m e t h o d th a t fa c ilita te s t l i e c o m m u n it y 's o w n in - d e p th lo o k a t t h e m s e lv e s a n d of th e ir p o s s ib ilitie s , a n d e n a b le s th e m to a rtic u la te th e s e d is c o v e r ie s m th e ir o w n c o lo u rfu l, m e a n in g fu l, u s a b le a n d re a lis tic w ay.
T o e m p h a s iz e o n th e learning, s o m e tim e s th e a n a g ra m FLA, w h ic h m e a n s P a rtic ip a tiv e L e a rn in g and A c tio n , is used. However, P R A IS the m o s t c o m m o n ly u s e d w ord . It is a ls o th e m e th o d , w hich
is m o s liy u sed to e n c o u r a g e and e n s u re p e o p le ’s participation. PRA c a n be d e s c rib e d as a m e th o d th a t e n a b le s p e o p le to e xpress and a n a ly s e th e re a litie s o f th e ir lives and c o n d itio n s , to plan w h a t action to take, and to m o n ito r a n d e v a lu a te th e re su lts. P R A em phasises th e p ro c e s s w h ic h e m p o w e rs local p eople, w h e r e a s its predecessor R R A w a s m ainly u s e d a s a m e a n s for ou tsid e rs to g a th e r information,
P RA o ffe rs a b a s k e t o f te c h n iq u e s fro m w h ic h one can select o n e o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f th e m , w h ic h a re a p p r o p r ia te to th e d e v e lo p m e n t a ctivity. T h e central pa rt o f any P R A is sem i-structured inte rv ie w in g . W h ile s e n s itiv e to p ic s c a n b e b e tte r a d d re s s e d in inte rvie w s w ith in d iv id u a ls , o th e r topics of m o re general concern are agre e a b le to fo c u s g ro u p d is c u s s io n s a n d c o m m u n ity meetings.
D uring th e s e in te rv ie w s a n d d is c u s s io n s , s e v e ra l d ia g ra m m a tic te ch n iq u e s are fr e q u e n tly u sed to s tim u la te d e b a te and find out the results. M a n y o f th e s e v is u a ls a re n o t d ra w n o n p a p e r b u t on (he ground w ith sticks, s to n e s , s e e d s and o th e r local m aterials and then fi'ansferred to p a p e r fo r a p e rm a n e n f re cord. D u r in g tfie 1980s, PRA w a s first d e v e lo p e d in In d ia and K enya, m a in ly su p p o rte d by NGOs o p e ra tin g a t g r a s s -r o o ts level. Until to d a y P R A e v o lv e d so fast in te rm s o f the m e th o d o lo g y , th e c re a tio n o f new to o ls and specifically in different w a y s it is a p p lie d .
C om p a re d to R R A w hich m ainly aim s at extracting information, P RA places e m p h a s is o n e m p o w e rin g local p e o p le to a ssu m e an active rol0 in a n a ly s in g th e ir ow n living c o n d itio n s , problem s and potentials in o rd e r to s e e k for a c h a n g e o f th e ir situation. Th e se changes are s u p p o s e d to be a chieved b y c o lle ctive action and the lo c a l c o m m u n i t i e s a r e i n v it e d to a s s u m e r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s fo r im plem enting re s p e c tiv e activities. T h e m e m b e rs o f the P RA team act as facilitators. H ere , it is no longer the e xternal experts but rather th e local people th e m s e lv e s w h o "own" the results o f a PRA Workshop.
C onsequently an im p o rta n t principle o f P R A is to sh a re the results of th e analysis b e tw e e n th e P R A te a m a n d (he c o m m u n ity m em tiers by visualisation, public p re s e n ta tio n s and d is c u s s io n s during meetings.
Some of the k e y P R A te c h n iq u e s are:
M A P P IN G T E C H N IQ U E S
M a p p in g e x e rc is e s as u s e d in a P R A a c tiv ity not only provide us with in fo rm a tio n a b o u t the p h y s ic a l c h a ra c te ris tic s surrounding
the com m unity but a ls o reveal m uch a b o u t th e so cio -e c o n o m ic conditions and how the participants perceive th e ir co m m un ity. T he maps are lisuaily draw n by a group of villagers e ith e r on the ground using stick or chalk o r on a large sheet of paper. T h e e x e rc is e often attracts much atte n tio n a n d gene ra te s u s e fu l d e b a te a m o n g the m apmakers and the onlookers. The final m ap is, th e n re corded by
the P R A team to use in subsequent discussions. M a p p in g techniques
include Social m ap, Resource map. M obility m a p , B a sic inform ation about the village, Tra n se ct W alk and V enn d ia g ra m
Social Mapping
Social M ap is to depict the social s tru c tu re o f the village. Any developm ent program is a deliberate intervention in a g ive n situation defined by space and time. So, as a first step: it is n e c e s s a ry to undertake an exercise of physical and social m a p p in g o f the given area where a program /project is being introduced, A S ocial M ap is a visual representation of a residential a rea c o n ta in in g re levant social information. It gives the physical bo u n d a rie s o f a g ive n area, the settlement pattern, physical infrastructure, social, cultural and religious institutions and similar o th e r information. S uch a m a p is to be draw n first on the ground w ith th e direct participation o f th e local residents and then transferred on paper with a p propriate le g e n d s a n d colours.
This technique m ay be u sed at the early s ta g e o f in te ra ctio n with the comm unity. Mapping gene ra te s a lot of e n th u s ia s m a m o n g iocal people and acts as a g ood icebreaker. A social m a p of P a n ich e ya m a rea in A s a m a n n o o r P a n c h a y a t of E rn a k u la m D is tric t g iv e s the complete social structure of the village (Fig. 1)
Steps:
Select an open sp a ce w h e re a m ap can be d r a w n on th e g round.
■ Ask the local p e o p le to prepare th e m a p o f th e ir s e ttle m e n t th a t can help o th e rs to have a vis u a l p ic tu re o f th e ir locality.
■ Ask the gro u p to s h o w all the fe a tu re s o f th e s e ttle m e n t th a t they can think of. such a s rivers, hills, ro a d s , ta n k s , b a m b o o groves, forests, wells, schools, h e a lth c e n te rs , clu b s , tem ples, and so on. T h e c lu s te rs of huts, b u ild in g s a n d re sid e n tia l places are also to be noted a n d m a rk e d o n th e map.
■ L a b e ls a n d s y m b o ls a re to b e u s e d to id e n tify d iffe r e n t
facilities, fe a lu r e s and infrastructure.
A llo w th e p a rtic ip a n ts to se le c t the s y m b o ls . A ny additional info rm a tio n th a t th e fa c ilita to r w a n ts to b e included in the map s h o u ld b e in tro d u c e d o n ly at th e en d , a fte r the group has finish e d p re p a rin g the m a p , a n d a fte r c onsultation with the group.
O n c e th e m a p is ready, o n e m a y a s k q u e s tio n s ab o u t the find in g s a s re q u ire d .
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Fig, 1 S o c ia l m a p o f of P a n ic h e y a m a re a in Asam annoor P a n c h a y a t of E rn a k u la m D istrict
R e s o u rc e Map
Resource M ap in d ic a te s both the natural re s o u rc e s a n d m an m a d e re s o u rc e s n e e d e d fo r d e v e lo p m e n t o f a g r ic u lt u r e . T his h e lp s to k n o w a b o u t the v illa g e a n d c o m m u n itv a n d its re s o u rc e b a s e , B a s ic a lly it in c lu d e s th e d e ta ile d la n d u s e in th e v illa g e s u c h a s fis h in g a re a s , s e a s h o r e , v illa g e p o n d s , b a c k w a t e r s , a g ric u ltu r a l land (w e t/g a rd e n /d r y la n d ), g r a z in g a r e a , w a s te land, f o r e s t lan d , w a te r b o d ie s , etc. a s w ell a s s in c e th e s o c ie t y is g e n d e re d , th e s itu a tio n a n a ly s is n e e d s to be d o n e to e n s u re w o m e n re p re s e n ta tio n a n d s p a c e to e x p re s s th e ir v o ic e , th ro u g h c o m m o n m e e tin g s (if re q u ire d ) a n d th r o u g h o r g a n iz in g s e p a ra te m e e t in g s fo r m e n a n d w o m e n . In th e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n , th e f a c ilita t o r s h o u ld id e n tify th e to o l, b a s e d on t h e r e q u ir e m e n t, o rg a n iz e e ith e r a c o m m o n g ro u p w ith s u ffic ie n t r e p r e s e n ta tio n of w o m e n or e x c lu s iv e m e n a n d w o m e n g ro u p s . It is a s u ita b le tool to be g in the p ro g ra m m e w ith a n d e n c o u ra g e s p e o p le to c o n trib u te t h e ir th o u g h ts at an e a rly p h a s e of p a rtic ip a to ry p ro c e s s . Fig. 2 d e p ic ts th e R e s o u rc e m a p o f P a n ic h e y a m a re a in A s a m a n n o o r P a n c h a y a t of E rn a k u la m D istrict.
P rocess: A la r g e o p e n s p a c e o r c h a r t c a n b e u s e d . It will b e e a s ie r to start b y m a rk in g a c e n tra l p la c e a n d e n c o u r a g in g the p a rtic ip a n ts to d ra w o th e r th in g s which a re im p o r ta n t to th e m a n d fin a lly a s kin g th e m t o p re s e n t it a n d a ls o d e s c r ib in g th e fe a tu r e s re p re s e n te d .
E x p e c te d o u tc o m e : F ro m th is o n e c a n g e t in fo r m a tio n on th e lo c a tio n of th e v illa g e , a v a ila b le re s o u rc e s a n d its u tiliz a tio n p a tte rn , u tiliz a tio n p a tte rn o f c o m m o n p ro p e rty r e s o u r c e s , s o u rc e o f w a te r, fire w o o d , g r a z in g a re a s , fis h in g a r e a s , b a c k w a t e r and c o n s tr a in ts /p o te n tia ls in e a c h in d ic a te d re s o u rc e s .
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F ig u re 2 R e s o u r c e M a p o f P a n ic h e y a m a re a in A s a m a n n o o r P a n c h a y a t o f E r n a k u la m D istrict
M o b ility M ap
T h is indicates th e p u rp o s e for w hich th e fa rm e rs g o o u t for d iv e rs e p u rp o s e . P a tte rn s o f g ro u p m o b ility of ru ral p e o p le can e m e rg e from individual m aps. IVlobility of rural p e o p le b a s e d on s o c io e c o n o m ic aspects, gerider, age g ro u p s and other crite ria c a n indicate th e n a tu r e of w o rk , w e a lth , in te ra c tio n w ith o u ts id e w o r ld a n d inte ra c tio n w ithin c o m m u n itie s a n d w ith o th e r c o m m u n itie s in the villa ge , it sh o w s the m ode of tra v e l, the d e g re e of m o b ility o f g ro u p s and c o m m u n itie s and im p o rta n c e o f diffe re n t a re a s in te rm s o f their d iffe re n t activities. Fig. 3 d e p ic ts a m obility of m a p of w o m e n from P a n ic h e y a m a rea of A s a m a n n o o r P anch a ya t in E rn a k u la m district T h e m a p sh o w s th a t the m o b ility o f w om e n ta ke s p la c e o n a c c o u n t of different reasons such as w ork, health, shopping, e d u ca tio n , prayer and e ntertainm ent. T he m a p also sh o w s the d is ta n c e of P a n ic h e y a m are a to the m o st visited a re a b y th e w o m e n fo lk o f th e area.
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Fig. 3: Mobility M a p of w o m e n of P a n ic h e y a m a r e a in A sa m a nn o o r P a n c h a y a t of E rn a k u la m District
B as ic in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e v illag e
T h is in d ic a te s th e d a ta re g a rd in g the p opulation, are a under crops, n u m b e r of fa m ilie s, yield o f anim als and crops, mortality related to a n im a ls etc. In Fig. 4, th e c o m p le te b a s ic info rm a tio n of the P e n ich e ya m a re a in A s a m a n n o o r P a n c h a y a t is given.
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Fig. 4: B a s ic p ro file o f th e P e n ic h e y a m a re a in A s a m a n n o o r P a n c h a y a t
T ra n s e c t W a lk
T ra n s e c t is m a kin g a long w alk inside the village and locating the various ite m s th a t a re fo u n d in the village like soil, crops, animals, problem s, etc. It is a s tru c tu re d w a lk th ro u g h the locality identified.
This w alk is be st c a rrie d out with a gro u p o f p e o p le w h o live there and know the a rea w ell. T h e s e local people s h o u ld act as g u id e s in the walk, s h o w in g a n d d iscu ssin g all the fe a tu re s th a t exist w ithin the area. T ra n s e c t w a lk will be very effe ctive if th e social m ap of the area has a lre a d y b e e n prepared. T h is will h e lp verification of the social m a p . It a ls o h e lp s the facilitator to fo c u s on s o m e key areas or issues.
F o c u s P o in ts
■ O n c e th e features such a s h ats (m arket place) o r the sch o o ls o r c iu b s are identified, th e fa c ilita to r m a y v is it th e s e p la ce s f o r m a x im u m in te ra c tio n w ith d iffe re n t s e g m e n ts o f the po pulation.
■ D u rin g the transect w alk th e facilitator is d ire c tly e x p o s e d to th e physical and to p o g ra p h ic a l fe atures w h ic h m a y o p e n up discu ssio n on various s u b je c ts for d e v e lo p m e n t intervention, su c h as w a te r c o n s e rv a tio n , c h a n g e in lan d u s e o r crop ro ta tio n pattern.
■ It m a y h e lp in lo c a tin g th e s e ttle m e n ts o f s o c ia lly and econom ically deprived b a c k g ro u n d people. D irect interaction w ith th e m w o u ld h e lp h im /h e r to id e n t if y t h e i r s p e c ia l p ro b le m s calling fo r attention.
T h e im p o rta n c e of a tra n s e c t lie s not on ly in k n o w in g t h e agro- e c o lo g ic a l z o n e s in ru ral a r e a s b u t also in g e ttin g in -d e p th a c c o u n t from the p a rtic ip a tin g v illa g e rs o f s u c h z o n e s in the village, th e ir uses, p ro b le m s a n d o p portunities. O n c e tra n s e c t w a lk c a n also be s u p p le m e n te d b y o th e r w alks s o as t o e n a b le the o u ts id e r to learn m o re a b o u t a n y village a n d c la r ify d o u b ts . _______________ T f i A M ^ S c r U J A L K A J A & r / f c A M !
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F ig . 5: T r a n s e c t w a lk o f t h e P e n ic h e y a m a r e a in A s a m a n n o o r P a n c h a y a t
V e n n d i a g r a m : T h is in d ic a te s th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e v a rio u s n d iv id u a ls a n d th e In s titu tio n in and o u ts id e th e village w ith regard :o a p h e n o m e n o n . F o r e x a m p le g e tt in g fo a n fo r a g ric u ltu ra l D urpose. V e n n D ia g r a m s h e lp in u n d e r s t a n d in g th e ro le s th e d iffe re n t in s titu tio n s p la y in a c o m m u n ity , th e ir m utual relationships, a nd th e re la tiv e im p o r ta n c e th e y p la y in p e o p le ’s lives. T h e s e are a lso k n o v/n a s C h a p p a t i D ia g ra m s b e c a u s e o f the c irc u la r pa p e r c u t-o u ts u s e d in th is a n a ly s is . T h e w h o le e x e rc is e is d ire c te d to jn d e r s ta n d h o w t h e p e o p le p e rc e iv e th e s e in s titu tio n s vis-a-vis
■-heir ow n liv e s . T h is m e th o d is b est e ffe c tiv e w h e n th e re spondents in te ra c t w ith in a g ro u p . It is e x p e c te d th a t a lo t of d iscu ssio n and d e b a te m a y fo llo w . T h e fa c ilita to r w ith o u t try in g to s top the debate s h o u ld try to h e lp th e m to c o m e to a c o n c lu s io n .
S te p s ;
■ First o n e c a n p re p a re a large c irc u la r paper, w hich represents the c o m m u n ity . S m a lle r c irc le s o f v a rio u s sizes should also be k e p t h a n d y. T h e s e sm all circles w o u ld represent different institutions.
■ T h e s iz e o f th e c irc le re p r e s e n ts th e im p o rta n c e o f an in s titu tio n to th e c o m m u n ity . (T he b ig g e r the sh a p e the more im p o rta n t is th e institution).
■ T h e p r o x i m i t y to o r d is t a n c e o f a n in s titu tio n fro m the c o m m u n ity is d e n o te d by the c lo s e n e s s o r distance of the circle re p re s e n tin g the institution fro m the centre of the main circle (re p re s e n tin g the com m unity).
■ S im ila rly d is ta n c e betw een circles re p re se n ts the absence of links b e tw e e n th e m .
RANKING EXE R CISE S
T h e m e th o d s of ranking and sco rin g reveal p rio rities and prelerences. T hey provide opportunities to rural people to physically rank and re-rank som e items or preferences or some uses and explain their reasons tor a given ranking. Matrix ranking and scoring are most a p p ro p ria te w h e n o u ts id e rs w ish to o b ta in p re c is e inform ation in relationships a m o n g s t several different criteria and wish to rank only a
Fig. 6 Venn diagram regarding the health c are facilities for the villagers of P a nic h e y e m a re a -
few alternatives, related to uses, preferences or priorities. T h e y can help in understanding rural people's criteria for ranking as well as relative p o s itio n of th e ir p riorities, p re fe re n c e s and c h o ic e in m a tte rs of occupation, medical treatment, food, fodder etc. They can be used for easy c o m p a ris o n s . Ranking m e th o d s include p re fe re n c e ra nking, problem tree. Impact analysis and Bioresources flow etc.
P re fe re n c e ranking: This is to find out the perception of fa rm e rs regarding the magnitude of the problem s found in the village. It involves ranking ol a set of problems/preferences/priorities by a gro u p or an individual on the basis of their criteria or perceptions. A n illustration of preference ranking is given in Fig. 7 which shows the preference of source of treatment by the villagers. At the end of the matrix, the first row shows that the overall rating is in the favour of the Allopathy.
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P a n ic h e y a m a re a in E r n a k u la m D is tric t
P ro b le m T re e
T h e problem tre e in d ic a te s va rio u s re s o u rc e s re s p o n s ib le i o r th e s p e c ific p ro b le m re la te d to a spe cific field. T h is w ill also in d ic a te the intervention to r th e va rio u s c a u s e s w h ic h w ill he lp in p ro b le m identification related to a discipline. T h e P ro b le m T re e is u s e d to a n a ly s e re la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n p ro b le m s , in c lu d in g th e ir c a u s e s and effects. T h e P ro b le m T re e h e lp s th e re s e a rc h te a m to m a k e an inve n to ry of p ro b le m s a n d th e ir s o lu tio n s a s p e rc e iv e d by th e ta r g e t gro u p or o th e r s ta k e h o ld e rs in the pro je ct. It c a n th u s be used in the analysis of the target group, in the o rg a n is a tio n a l analysis and in th e analysis of th e p ro je c t proposal. It is m o s tly k n o w n a s a te c h n iq u e to design o r t o a n a ly s e project p ro p o sa ls. T h e p ro b le m T ree is ‘built’ w ith the he lp o f in d e x cards. T h e y can be c o n s tru c te d in th e follow ing way:
■ T h e participants a re a s k e d to e n u m e ra te th e p ro b le m s fa ce d w ith. Each p ro b le m cite d o r listed is w ritte n d o w n o n a ca rd (o n e problem per c a rd ). W h e n the p a rtic ip a n ts a re illiterate, sym b o ls should b e u sed in s te a d of descrip tio n s.
■ T h e cards are ranked fo r priority. T h e k e y q u e s tio n fo r ranking includes w hich of th e s e p ro b le m s is th e C o r e p ro b le m , the problem th a t cre a te s m a n y o th e r p ro b le m s a n d h a s th e m ost im p o rta n t effects o n th e lives of th e p a rtic ip a n ts . T h e core p ro b le m is placed ce n tra l o n the board.
■ Subsequently, the p articipants are asked fo r e ach p a ir o f cards w ith problems: 1. A re th e s e tw o ca rd s th e c a u s e s o f th e :o re problem or c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the core p ro b le m o r in d e p e n d e n t issues?
■ 8 y d o in g so, the p ro b le m c a rd s are a rra n g e d in th e fo rm o f a tre e , w ith the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th e C ore p ro b le m a t th e top a n d th e fa c t o r s u n d e r l y in g th e c o r e p r o b l e m b e lo w it.
S eco n d a ry trees m a y h a v e fo rm e d a ro u n d o th e r k e y p roblem s unre la te d w ith th e s e le c te d co re pro b le m .
T h e particip a n ts a re a s k e d to fo c u s on th e c o re p r o b le m and re q u e s te d to s e e w h e th e r alt im p o rta n t c a u s e s o f th e c o re p ro b le m are in c lu d e d in the tree. A d d itio n a l c a u s e s m e n tio n e d a re added.
T h e p ro c e d u re is repeated fo r th e co n s e q u e n c e s o f th e c o re problem.
T h e re s u lt g ive s an o v e ra ll im a g e o f the p r o b le m s lis te d by the p a n lc ip a n ts in relation to o n e a n o th e r. Fig. 8 g iv e s a n e x a m p le of
the P a n ic h e y e m a re a in E rn a k u la m district, W h e re 'Lung disease' is identified a s trie c o re problem
T h e c o n s tru c tio n of p ro b le m tre e is useful because it sh o w s c a u s e -e ffe c t re la tio n s h ip s and p ro v id e s a b a sis for discussion on w hich p ro b le m s h a v e to be d e a lt w ith in o rd e r to solve the core p ro b le m s a n d to w h ic h e x te n d th e s e c a n b e in flu e n c e d b y the p articipants th e m s e lv e s . In the d e sig n s ta g e , the Problem T re e (s) can be c o n v e rte d into an ob je ctive tree. T o this effect, e ach ca rd in the P roblem T re e is reform ulated in term s o f a n im provem ent desired.
T h e desired im p ro v e m e n ts o r the c h a n g e s a re written down on cards (one c h a n g e p e r c a rd ) and a rra n g e d in a fo r m sim ilar to the Problem T re e . T h e re s u lt is th e ob je ctive tree s h o w in g how solutions to the problem s are related to e ach other. G ood facilitation is indispensable;
leading q u e s tio n s o r m a n ip u la tio n b y d o m in a n t participants should be avoided.
P R O B L E M T R E E
P a n ic h e y e m a re a in E rn a l< u la m D istrict 33
Im p a c t D ia g ra m
This indicates the changes that have occurred either for individual o r for the society due to adoption of a technology. Im pact analysis is a type of flow diagram. It is an im pact of the effect of a n y activity. T he effects can b e both favorable a n d unfavorable on rural livelihoods. T he im pact diagram shows the im pact point and the linkages e stablished or disrupted a s a result of intervention m ade. Fig. 9 sh o w s the im pact o f Family Planning Permanent methods.
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Fig, 9: Im p a ct d ia g r a m of F a m ily P lanning P e rm a n e n t M ethods
