ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
PAPER: MBA1C11
UNIT III
Amir Jafar
Associate Professor
Department of Business Administration Aligarh Muslim University Centre
Jangipur, Murshidabad
Unit III:
Foundations of Learning & Motivation
◦
Learning Process
◦
Theories of Learning
◦
Content Theories of Motivation
◦
Process Theories of Motivation
◦
An Integrative Model of Motivation
◦
Motivational Techniques
Learning: Definitions
◦ A generally accepted definition of learning is “any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.”
◦ According to Buchanan & Huczynski, learning is a process of “acquiring knowledge through experience which leads to an enduring change in behaviour.”
◦ Learning is defined as “a relatively permanent change in behaviour, or potential behaviour, that results from experience.” (Hulse et al. 1980)
A number of important points flow from these definitions:
◦ It excludes changes in behaviour that result purely from maturation.
◦ Learning cannot be observed directly, but only inferred from behaviour.
◦ Because a person is unlikely to perform better until he or she has learned to do so, there is clearly a relationship between
performance and behaviour, but a lack of performance is not an infallible sign that no learning has taken place.
◦ For the behaviour that provides evidence that learning has taken place to be exhibited, there often has to be a motivation or incentive to do so.
THE LEARNING PROCESS
According to Gange (1974) suggests that the learning process involves a chain of seven events. Some of the events are internal to the learner and some are external. Moreover, he argues that failure to learn will take place if any of the links in the learning process do not
operate properly. All the steps in the learning process are highly dependent. (Rollinson, 2005, pp. 175-6)
MOTIVATION (or expectancy)
AWARENESS
Subject perceives material and distinguishes between it and other stimuli that compete for attention
ACQUISITION
Encodes the material, makes sense of it and relates it to what is already known
RECALL
Retrieves material from memory
FEEDBACK
Person obtains knowledge of results PERFORMANCE orAPPLICATION Learned material is applied in practice
RETENTION
Stores knowledge in short or long-term memory
KOLB & FRY LEARNING CYCLE
◦ Kolb and Fry argue that learning occur through an integrated process.
This is based firmly on experience and it consist four different stages.
◦ A concrete experienceoccurs when a person experiences something new and collects information on the phenomenon. In the reflective observation stage, the person moves beyond merely collecting
information on the phenomenon and begins to analyse its implications.
Abstract conceptualization involves going even further into generating abstract concepts and mental models. In the active experimentation stage the abstract model, developed in the earlier stage, is tested. There are two important implications of this model:
◦ (i) It views learning as a cyclical process, in which each stage impacts on the next one, and the end of each cycle becomes the start of a new one.
◦ (ii) The model firmly places learning within the context of our everyday experience of life, not something that only occurs in formal learning or training sessions.
◦ Kolb and Fry further argue that individuals vary in their preferences for using one of the stages in the cycle- usually the one with which they are most ‘at ease’. People can find that trying to learn in the style that
corresponds to another stage in the cycle is difficult, stressful or even unpleasant. (Rollinson, 2005, pp. 176-7)
Concrete experience
Formation of abstract concepts &
generalizations
Observation
& reflection Testing of
implications of concepts in
new situations
Source: Rollinson, D. Organisational Behaviour and Analysis –An Integrated Approach, 2005, Prentice Hall, pp.177
MAJOR THEORIES OF LEARNING
Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning/Respondent Conditioning):
◦
The concept and related conditioning techniques were developed by Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936).
◦
The best known response which Pavlov studied concerned a dog salivating at the sight of food. Pavlov
demonstrated how this can be associated with a new and completely different stimulus, such as the sound of a bell. Dog owners are still trained in the use of classical conditioning methods. If you show meat to a dog, it will produce saliva. The meat is the stimulus, the saliva is the response. The meat is an unconditioned
response. The dog will produce saliva without any manipulation by a psychologist. Unconditioned responses are also called reflexes.
◦
Suppose we now ring a bell before we show the meat to the dog. Do this often, and the dog will associate the bell with the meat. Eventually the dog will start to salivate at the sound of the bell, without food being
present. The bell is a conditioned stimulus, and the saliva is a conditioned response. The dog has learned,
from experience, to salivate at the sound of the bell as well as at the sight of the food. All manner of stimuli
can be conditioned in this way (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004, pp.113-114).
MAJOR THEORIES OF LEARNING
(contd.)◦ Operant Conditioning (Skinnerian Conditioning/Instrumental Conditioning): This theory of
learning was discovered by AN American psychologist Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-90).
◦
Operant conditioning demonstrates how new behaviours or responses become established through association with particular stimuli.
◦
Where the consequence of a particular behaviour is desirable to the individual, then the frequency of the behaviour is likely to increase. Given a particular context, any behaviour that is rewarded or reinforced will tend to be repeated in that context.
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Skinner put a rat into a box (now known as Skinner box) with a lever inside which, when pressed, gave the animal food. The rat is not taught to press the lever.
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However, in the process of wandering around the box, the rat eventually nudges the lever. It may sit on it, knock it with its head or push it with a paw.
◦
That random behaviour is reinforced with food, and it is likely to happen again. (Buchanan & Huczynski,
2004, pp.114)
Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared
Characteristic Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Behaviour involved Involuntary, reflex behaviour Voluntary behaviour
How behaviour obtained Elicited (drawn-out) by use of relevant stimulus Emitted by organism for instrumental reasons, i.e.
to obtain rewards, or to avoid aversive stimuli Procedures used Organism passive, with no control over US or CS Organism active. It cannot obtain reward or avoid
aversive stimulus until it emits desired behaviour, and can obtain repeated rewards for doing so.
Selection of desired behaviour Only innate responses can be selected for conditioning
Any natural behaviour emitted by the organism can be selected for conditioning
Changes in behaviour possible Only to the extent that an innate response is made to occur to different stimuli
Since organism learns that certain behaviours result in it obtaining reinforcement, whole new repertories of behaviour can be learned.
Reinforcement Reinforcement not contingent on response.
Reinforcement elicits the response, i.e.
S ---> R
Reinforcement contingent on response, i.e.
R---> S
Source: Rollinson, D., Organisational Behaviour and Analysis –An Integrated Approach, 2005, Prentice Hall, pp.170
MAJOR THEORIES OF LEARNING
(contd.)Social Learning:
◦ According to the social learning theory, people learn through both observation and direct experience. The social learning theory is an extension of the operant conditioning. It assumes that behaviour is a function of
consequences. It also acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning. People respond to how they perceive and define consequences, not to the objective consequences
themselves. Three related features of social learning theory are behavioural modeling, learning behaviour consequences, and self-reinforcement. (McShane et. el, 2005, 108)
◦ People learn by observing the behaviours of a role model on the critical task, remembering the important elements of the observed behaviours, and then practicing those behaviours. Behavioural modeling is a valuable form of learning because tacit knowledge and skills are mainly acquired from others in this way. Behavioural modeling also increases the self-efficacy because people gain more self-confidence after seeing someone else do it than they are simply told what to do. Self efficacy is also affected by initial experiences when practicing the previously modeled behaviour.
◦ The second element of social learning theory specifies that we learn the consequences of behaviour in ways other than through direct experiences. In particular, we learn by logically thinking through the consequences that other people experience following their behaviour.
◦ The final element of the social leaning theory is self-reinforcement. Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behaviour if their behaviour is positively reinforced. (McShane et. el, 2005, 108-9)
DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING
Some of the determinants of learning which are discussed in this section are as follows—self-efficacy, motivation, knowledge of results/consequences, reinforcement, schedule of learning.
◦ Self-efficacy: It refers to a person’s belief in his or ability to act in a certain way. If a person lacks self-
efficacy, then effective learning is a very difficult task.
◦ Motivation:
Along with self-efficacy comes the concept of motivation. Without motivation learning cannot occur.
◦ Knowledge of consequences:
Proper knowledge about the consequences stimulates the learner. If the consequences are clear, the learning can take place at a faster rate.
◦ Reinforcement:
It is the fundamental conditioning of learning. Reinforcement can be defined as “anything that both increases the strength of response and tends to induce repetitions of the behaviour that preceded the reinforcement.”
◦ Schedule of learning:
Effectiveness of a learning process depends on the schedule of learning. For proper learning, “distributed or spaced practice is superior to continuous or massed practice.”
◦ Whole or part of a job: Learning a whole job is always better than learning a part of a job.
SHAPING OF BEHAVIOUR
◦ One of the most important tasks of the managers is to shape the behaviour of the employees.
◦ The employees need to learn behaviour that will benefit the organisation.
◦ The behaviour is molded by guiding the learning in graduated steps.
◦ In case of shaping of behaviour, we systematically reinforce each successive step of the learning process that moves the individual closer to the desired response.
◦ Reinforcement would increase as responses more closely approximated the desired behaviour.
◦ There are four ways—
◦ positive reinforcement,
◦ negative reinforcement,
◦ punishment and
◦ extinction,
◦ through which shaping of behaviour can be done.
REINFORCEMENT
◦ The different types of reinforcement that are used for effective learning are—positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction.
◦ In positive reinforcement, an individual is rewarded for a particular piece of behaviour. The positive reinforcers are of two types-primary and secondary. The primary positive reinforcers satisfy a primary need, usually one that is physiological. The secondary reinforcers acquire their reinforcing value through learning, often because they have become paired with a primary reinforcer. So, we can say that positive reinforcement is the process by which people learn to perform behaviours leading to desirable outcomes.
◦ Negative reinforcement refers to a situation in which the removal of an aversive stimulus increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. In other words, negative reinforcement is the process by which people learn to perform behaviour that lead to the removal of undesirable consequences.
◦ Punishment is often confused with negative reinforcement, but they are quite different. Punishment is intended to eliminate a particular behaviour, whereas a negative reinforcement aims to strengthen a behaviour by removing an aversive stimulus. Punishment can be applied in two different ways—punishment by application, and punishment by removal. Punishment by application consists of using an aversive stimulus immediately following a particular act of behaviour. In case of punishment by removal, a positive reinforcement is removed after a particular behaviour.
(Rollinson, 2005, pp. 168-9)
◦ Extinction is the process through which responses that are no longer reinforced tend to gradually diminish in strength. In case of extinction, the link between the behaviour and its consequences is weakened by with-holding the reward.
◦ The various relationships between one’s behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour-positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction- are known collectively as contingencies of reinforcement.
They represent the conditions under which rewards and punishments will be either given or taken away.(Greenberg
& Baron, 2005, pp. 57)
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
◦ “The rules governing the timing and frequency of reinforcement are known as schedules of reinforcement.” Rewarding every desired response made is called continuous reinforcement.
The intermittent reinforcement occurs when a reinforcer is not given every time the desired response takes place.
◦ In fixed interval schedule, reinforcement is delivered at regular, fixed time intervals.
◦ A variable interval schedule makes the reinforcement available in a less predictable way, sometimes after a short interval and sometimes after long intervals.
◦ In a fixed ratio schedule, reinforcements are delivered after a fixed number of desired responses.
◦ Variable ratio schedules are those in which a variable number of desired responses must occur between the administration of reinforcements.
◦ In practice, several different schedules are combined to make new schedules which are more
complex. Whether the schedules operate separately or in conjunction with one another, it is
important to recognize the strong influences that schedules of reinforcement can have on
people’s behaviour in organisations.
MOTIVATION: CONCEPT
◦ The term motivation has been derived from the Latin word ‘movere’, which means ‘to move.’
◦ Robbins and Judge have defined motivation as the “processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal”.
Motivation is concerned with effort toward any goal, but the authors have narrowed the focus to organisational goals in order to reflect the interest in work-related behaviour. The three key elements in this definition are intensity, direction, and persistence. Intensity
describes how hard a person tries; direction talks about the course in which the effort is channelized; and persistence refers to an individual’s willingness to stay with the direction when hindrances are encountered.
◦ According to Rollinson, motivation refers to “a state arising in processes that are internal and external to the individual, in which the person perceives that it is appropriate to pursue a certain course of action (or actions) directed at achieving a specified outcome (or
outcomes) and in which the person chooses to pursue those outcomes with a degree of vigour and persistence”.
◦ According to Fred Luthans, “motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive”. Thus, to understand the process of motivation we must have a proper understanding about the relationships among needs, drives, and incentives. Figure 12.1 depicts the basic motivation process.
The Theoretical Development of Work Motivation
Source: Organizational Behavior-An Evidence-Based Approach by Fred Luthans, 12thEdition, McGraw Hill, pp.162
Content Theories of Motivation
◦ MASLOW’S NEEDS THEORY
◦ 1. Physiological needs. The physiological needs are the basic needs, and they generally correspond to the unlearned primary needs. The needs of hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex are some examples.
◦ 2. Safety needs. This second level of needs is somewhat like the security need. In the context of safety needs, Maslow stressed
emotional as well as physical safety. So, safety needs refer to security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
◦ 3. Social needs. This third level of needs resemblance to the affection and affiliation needs. It refers to the need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.
◦ 4. Esteem needs. The esteem level represents the higher needs.
The needs for power, achievement, and status are considered to be part of this level. Esteem level contains both self-esteem and esteem from others. It refers to “internal factors such as self-respect,
autonomy, and achievement, and external factors such as status, recognition, and attention”.
◦ 5. Needs for self-actualization.Maslow’s portrays this level as the
“culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher needs of humans. People who have become self-actualized are self-fulfilled and have realized all their potential”.
HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
◦ Psychologist Frederick Herzberg developed the two-factor content theory of motivation— also called motivation- hygiene theory.
◦ The two factors are the dissatisfiers-satisfiers, the hygiene- motivators, or the extrinsic–intrinsic factors.
◦ This theory is based on a research study and it surveyed a group of 200 accountants and engineers.
◦ The findings of the research resulted in the development of two distinct kinds of experiences: satisfiers and
dissatisfiers.
◦ First, there’s a set of extrinsic conditions which are related to the job context. It includes pay, status, and working conditions. The presence of these conditions leading to the satisfaction of the employee doesn’t necessarily
motivate him, but their absence results in dissatisfaction.
◦ Second, a set of intrinsic conditions which are related to the job content, is also present. It includes feelings of
achievement, increased responsibility, and recognition. The absence of these conditions doesn’t prove highly
dissatisfying. But when present, they build strong levels of motivation leading to good job performance.
McGREGOR’S THEORY X AND THEORY Y
◦ Theory X and Theory Y, proposed by Douglas McGregor, are two distinct sets of assumptions about human beings.
◦ One basically a set of negative assumptions which is labelled as Theory X, and the other set of positive assumptions about human beings which is labelled as Theory Y.
◦ McGregor studied the managers’ dealings with employees, and he concluded that their views of the nature of human beings are based on certain assumptions that mould their behaviour to towards the employees.
◦ The assumptions about human nature that underlie Theory X are as follows:
◦ Work is inherently distasteful to most people
◦ Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed.
◦ Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving problems.
◦ Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels.
◦ Most people must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organisational objectives.
◦ The assumptions about human nature that underlie Theory Y are as follows:
◦ Work is as natural as play, if conditions are favourable.
◦ Self-control is often indispensable in achieving organisational goals.
◦ The capacity of creativity in solving organisational problems is widely distributed in the population.
◦ Motivation occurs at the social, esteem and self-actualisation levels, as well as at the physiological and security levels.
◦ People can be self-directed and creative at work if properly motivated. (Hersey, Blanchard and Johnson, 2006, pp.60)
ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
◦ Alderfer (1972) using the idea of hierarchical ordering proposed the ERG theory. According to him, there are three sets of needs: Existence (E), Relatedness (R) and Growth (G).
◦ Existence needs are those necessary for human survival and are roughly equivalent to Maslow’s physiological and security needs. These needs are satisfied by factors like food, air, water, pay, and working conditions
◦ Relatedness needs are concerned with needs to interact with others. It is similar to the Maslow’s social needs and to some extent to the esteem needs. Relatedness needs are satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal
relationships.
◦ Growth needs are at the highest level and they are similar to the Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization needs.
Growth needs are satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions.
McCLELLAND’S THEORY OF LEARNED NEEDS
◦ David C. McClelland has proposed the learned needs theory of motivation which closely associated with learning concepts.
◦ The learned needs are the need for achievement (n Ach), the need for affiliation (n Aff), and the need for power (n Pow). McClelland suggested that when a need is strong in a person, its effect is to motivate him to use behaviour leading to its satisfaction.
The Need for Achievement (N.Ach.)
◦ It refers to the “need to succeed or excel in areas of significance to the person”. The need for achievement prompts an individual to try to succeed or excel in areas that have significance to him.
The Need for Power (N.Pow.)
◦ It refers to the “need to control the activities of other people”. Since power is associated with prestige and social standing, people who are able to satisfy this need obtain a sense of psychological fulfilment which in turn boosts their self-concept.
The Need for Affiliation (N.Affil.)
◦ It refers to the “need to interact with, and be liked, other people”. This results in a tendency for the person to want reassurance and approval from others. People with high N.Affil. often pursue work that has a strong element of interpersonal contact.
PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
VROOM’S VALENCE – EXPECTANCY (VIE) MODEL
◦ Victor Vroom (1964) proposed the first expectancy theory which is
popularly known as VIE Theory. Vroom defines motivation” as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity”. To understand the model, it is necessary to explain the terms used in the model.
◦ Valence: Valence is the strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome, which can be positive or negative.
◦ Outcomes: Outcomes are the things that result from behaviour and can be expressed at two levels:
◦ First level outcomesare the immediate results of behaviour. These outcomes are associated with doing the job itself, and it includes productivity, absenteeism, turnover, and quality of productivity.
◦ Second level outcomesare those outcomes that flow from the first-level.
It refers to those events that the first-level outcomes are likely to produce, such as merit pay increase, group acceptance or rejection, and promotion.
◦ Expectancy: This is an individual’s perception that his behaviour will result in the first level outcome. The word ‘perception’ has been used since the event has not yet occurred. The expectancy of an individual can only be a subjective estimate.
◦ Instrumentality: It refers to the perceived strength of the connection between first level and second-level outcomes. This is again perceptual in nature.
THE PORTER AND LAWLER EXPECTANCY MODEL
◦ The Porter and Lawler expectancy model is a the multivariable model which can be used to explain the complex relationships that exist among motivation, performance, and satisfaction.
◦ Value of reward (1) is the “extent to which a person values an outcome”.
◦ Perceived effort to reward probability (2) is the perceived likelihood that rewards will follow from successful performance.
◦ Effort on task (3) refers to how hard someone tries to perform the task.
Effort alone does not ensure successful task performance, and there are two other variables that are likely to have mediating effects:
◦ Personal attributes and traits(4)
◦ Fit between perceptions of role and demands of performance (5)
◦ Performance(6) is the final outcome of engaging in the task and includes whether it is successfully accomplished or not.
◦ Rewardsare the outcomes for the person performing the task. They fall into two groups:
◦ Intrinsic rewards(7A) are the inner feelings of accomplishment and sense of challenges;
◦ Extrinsic rewards(7B) are tangible items such as pay and promotion. (Rollinson, 2005, pp. 223)
◦ Perception of equitable rewards(8) refers to the person’s judgement about whether the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards obtained after the performance are fair and just.
◦ Satisfaction(9) is influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, largely the extent to which they are perceived as equitable, and this is one of the most significant features of the Porter and Lawler model.
Source: Organizational Behavior-An Evidence-Based Approach by Fred Luthans, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill, pp.168
ADAM’S EQUITY THEORY
◦ Social psychologist J. Stacy Adams has popularised it as a theory of work motivation. The equity theory of motivation is based on a very simple idea that “an individual’s motivation to put effort into a task will be influenced by perceptions of whether the rewards obtained are fair in comparison to those received by other people”.
Comparison Stage
◦ Evaluates the inputs and outputs associated with performing a task, and these are compared with the inputs and outputs of another person’s task. There are four referent comparisons:
◦ Self-inside. An employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current organization.
◦ Self-outside. An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside the employee’s current organization.
◦ Other-inside. Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization.
◦ Other-outside. Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization. (Robbins & Judge, 2012, pp.
220)
◦ Inputs refer to the “things that a person brings to the job, such as education, skill, experience and effort”.
◦ Outputsare the “rewards received for the job, such as pay, promotions, praise etc.” Judgement Stage
◦ A judgement is made about whether the person’s own ratio is the same or near to that of the ‘comparison other’
or referent person. If it is same, then all is probably well, but if it is not, feelings of inequity can arise and this gives rise to the next stage in the process.
Tension
◦ Tensions or feeling of psychological discomfort, crops from perceived inequity. The greater the degree of tension, the greater is the motivation to do something that eases it.
Actions to Remove Tension and Restore Equity
◦ To lessen the tension and restore equity proper actions are needed. Adams proposed six basic options for action:
◦ Modifying inputs,
◦ Seek to modify outputs,
◦ Modify perceptions of self;
◦ Modify perceptions of the ‘comparison other’;
◦ Change the person or persons used as the ‘comparison other’;
◦ Leave the situation.
◦ but they are the ‘reality’ of the situation to the person concerned, and this triggers the next stage of the model
into play. Source: https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/the-little-
book/9780273785262/html/chapter-032.html
LOCKE’S GOAL SETTING THEORY
Locke’s (1968) goal-setting theory is based on the premise that “most people have goals or objectives of some sort and the idea that motivated behaviour is a function of a person’s conscious goals and intentions”.
◦ A goal is the object of an action; it is what an individual attempts to accomplish. The two basic features of goals:
◦ Goal Difficulty (1) is the extent to which a goal is challenging and demanding for a person.
◦ Goal Specificity (2) is the “clarity and explicitness of the performance target.
◦ Goals give rise to goal-directed effort (5). It is influenced by two factors:
◦ Goal acceptance (3) refers to the extent to which someone accepts a goal as a legitimate and appropriate one for him or herself;
◦ Goal commitment (4) indicates an individual’s vested interest in achieving the goal.
◦ Performance (6) is an indication of whether, and to what extent, the goal is actually achieved. Performance can be strongly influenced by two additional factors:
◦ Organisational support(7), which is the extent to which adequate resources are available to the individual who has to achieve the goal; and
◦ Individual ability and training(8), which indicates that the individual pursuing the goal must have the requisite ability and training.
◦ Where goals are achieved the person should then be rewarded and, like Vroom, Locke explicitly states that intrinsic and extrinsic rewards(9 and 10) are both important. He also recognises that a person’s eventual level of satisfaction (11) will crucially depend upon whether the rewards are seen as equitable for what has been achieved. (Rollinson, 2005, pp. 228)
Motivational Techniques for Indian Settings
◦ Jobs are rather restricted in India allowing little motivation
◦ Organizations allow little scope for higher order needs
◦ Cultural values place importance on seniority rather than merit which results in demotivation
◦ Most organizations also lack a sound appraisal system
◦ Indian labour is still seen as indifferent, lazy, lethargic, non sincere and lacking high self-efficacy and
motivation.
◦ Indian workers rate low on commitment, loyalty, ethics
◦ Theory X was more popular in India, but the recent developments in management styles have made Indian managers shift to Theory Y.
◦ While lower level workers in India are still struggling to fulfil lower order needs, those in managerial positions have higher order needs to satisfy.
◦ Adam’s and Vroom’s theory have great implications for Indian workers.
◦ MBOs have not been very successful in India in the past.
◦ Monetary rewards are still cherished
◦ Non-monetary rewards like recognition, career opportunities
◦ Involving staff in generating ideas
◦ Designing non-monotonous, challenging jobs
◦ Giving freedom and autonomy
◦ Recognizing and fulfilling needs
◦ Recognizing and rewarding merit rather than just seniority
◦ Promoting individual growth and talent
◦ Setting motivating goals in participation
◦ Developing reliable appraisal and equitable reward systems
◦ Being fair and objective
◦ Making clear what is valued in organizations
•Robbins & Judge: Organizational Behavior, 12th Edition, 2007, PHI
•Robbins & Sanghi: Organizational Behavior, 2005, Pearson
•Luthans: Organizational Behavior, Tenth Edition, 2005, McGraw-Hill
•Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn: Organizational Behavior, 9thEdition, 2005, Wiley
•Newstrom: Organizational Behavior-Human Behavior at Work, 12th Edition, 2007, Tata McGraw Hill
•Rollinson: Organisational Behaviour and Analysis-An Integrated Approach, 3rd Edition, 2005, Pearson
•McShane, Glinow & Sharma: Organizational Behavior, 3rd Edition, 2006, Tata McGraw Hill
•Greenberg & Baron: Behavior in Organizations, 8thEdition, 2005, Pearson
•Buchanan & Huczynski: Organizational Behaviour-An Introductory Text, 5thEdition, 2004, Prentice Hall
•Pierce, Gardner & Dunham: Management & Organizational Behavior-An Integrated Perspective, India Edition, 2002, Cengage Learning
•Aswathappa: Organisational Behaviour-Text, Cases, Games, 2002, Himalaya
FURTHER READINGS
